1. 11
Political Parties
Though conventions used to have more of an influence on the choice of candidate, they have long been pep rallies. Here, Michigan delegates show their support for Mitt Romney in 2012.

2. 11
Video: The Big Picture
Learn what purpose the major political parties serve in American politics—and why there are only two of them. Author Larry J. Sabato analyzes the party system in the United States, and weighs what it’s able to accomplish against the problems it creates.
TO THE INSTRUCTOR: To access the videos in this chapter, please enter your Pearson or MyPoliSciLab username and password after clicking on the link on the slide.

3. 11
Learning Objectives
Trace the evolution of the two-party system in the United States
11.1
Outline the structure of American political parties at the national, state, and local levels
11.2
Though the Framers of the Constitution never intended for political parties to arise in the United States, they started up soon after the Constitution was ratified. Early on, the United States developed a two-party system, and to this day third parties have small chance of getting anywhere in the U.S.
Many Americans identify themselves as being either Republicans or Democrats, and even though the number of self-identified Independents is on the rise, the nation has entered an era of polarization.

4. 11
Learning Objectives
Identify the functions performed by American political parties
11.3
Analyze how political socialization and group affiliations shape party identification
11.4

5. 11
Learning Objectives
Evaluate the role of minor parties in the American two-party system
11.5
Assess party polarization in the modern era
11.6
11.2

6. 11
Video: The Basics
Why do we have political parties in America? In this video, you’ll learn about the rise of political parties in the United States, as well as why the two-party system continues to dominate American politics, and how the major parties differ from one another.

7. Roots of the Two-Party System
11.1
Roots of the Two-Party System
The Development of the Political Parties,
Jacksonian Democracy,
The Golden Age,
The Modern Era
Citizen Support and Party Realignment
What exactly do we mean when we refer to a political party? We are talking about an organization of public officials, candidates, activists and voters who pursue their common interests by gaining—and then using—power through the electoral process.
We’ve had political parties in American politics almost since our founding. The Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans were the first two parties to develop.
The Democratic Party held the first national presidential convention in 1832, and the Whig Party formed to oppose President Andrew Jackson. Eventually, the Whig Party dissolved and was replaced by the Republican Party. From 1860 until today, these two parties—Democratic and Republican—have formed what has become our two-party system.

8. The Development of Political Parties, 1800-1824
11.1
The Development of Political Parties,
Ratification of the U.S. Constitution
Federalists supported strong central government
Election of 1800
Thomas Jefferson versus John Adams
Political parties intended to be temporary, not long-term structures
When the Framers were designing the U.S. Constitution, they were opposed to permanent political parties. However, the American political party system actually took root during the drafting and ratification of the Constitution. Those who supported the Constitution and its provisions for a strong, central government eventually became the Federalist Party, while the future Democratic-Republicans wanted a system that allowed greater power for the states.
Political parties came closer to becoming permanent fixtures during the 1800 presidential election battle between Democratic-Republican nominee Thomas Jefferson and Federalist-backed John Adams for the presidency. But even then parties were thought to be a means to an end, not an entity unto themselves.

9. 11.1 FIGURE 11.1: How has the two-party system developed?
The United States has had two political parties for much of its history. Though the names of the parties have changed over time, the central controversies over the role of government in citizens’ lives have not.

10. 11.1
Video: In Context
Trace the development of political parties in the United States from the time of the ratification of the Constitution. Oklahoma State University political scientist Jeanette M. Mendez explains why political parties emerged and what role they play in our democratic system.

11. Jacksonian Democracy, 1824-1860
11.1
Jacksonian Democracy,
Political party influence
Decreased at the national level
Increased at the state level due to expansion of the electorate
Whigs and Democrats
Gave the United States the first broadly-supported two-party system in the Western World
Political parties were not as important at the national level during this time as they had been during the quarter century before. But political parties did grow at the state level, fueled in part by the growth in the eligible voting population that took place between 1820 and That’s when many states got rid of the requirement that voters be property owners.
Andrew Jackson’s Democratic Party attracted most of the new voters, and he was the first tenant of the White House to be chosen by a truly national, popularly based political party. Jackson’s Democrats, and the Whigs who coalesced in their opposition to Jackson, strengthened and gave the United States the first broadly-supported two-party system in the Western World.

12. The Golden Age, 1860-1932 11.1 Party Stability Political Machines
Characterized by the dominance of party organizations
Era from end of Reconstruction until reforms of the Progressive Era
Political Machines
Organizations that use tangible incentives such as jobs and favors to win loyalty among voters
Provided upward social mobility
When historians consider the so-called “Golden Age” of politics, they note party stability, the dominance of political party associations in local and state governments, and the effect of those organizations on voters. This era, which lasted from the end of Reconstruction until the Progressive Era, featured surprising stability in the evolution and identity of both the Republican and Democratic parties.
This was in part due the the existence of political machines, organizations that used tangible benefits, such as jobs and favors, to win loyalty among voters. A side effect of political machines was the opportunity for upward social mobility, especially for immigrants.

13. 11.1 Where did the party symbols originate?
In 1874, the cartoonist Thomas Nast published a cartoon depicting the upcoming election at the Central Park Zoo. The elephant was labeled “The Republican Vote.” The donkey was the symbol chosen by Andrew Jackson for his 1828 campaign, after being called “the jackass.”

14. The Modern Era 11.1 Elections and social services changes
Ballot printing, other elections duties handled by government instead of parties
Roosevelt’s New Deal put social services in hands of government, not parties
Candidate-centered politics
Shift to focus on candidates, their issues and character rather than on party affiliation
Following the Golden Age came the Modern Era. For about 30 years, between 1900 and the 1930s, the government took over a number of important roles that had been handled by the parties, such as printing ballots, conducting elections, and providing social supports. These changes weakened party loyalty and strength. Beginning with President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, people began to see social services as a right rather than as a payback for party loyalty.
This weakening of the parties also led to more candidate-centered politics and elections, in which the focus was on individual candidates, their particular issues and character, rather than party affiliation.

15. Citizen Support and Party Realignment
11.1
Citizen Support and Party Realignment
Party realignments
Dramatic shifts in partisan preference that drastically alter the political landscape
Existing party affiliations subject to upheaval
Critical elections
May polarize voters around new issues or personalities
Secular realignments
More gradual shifts in party coalitions
The type of stability observed in the Golden Age, and for a time beyond, generally won’t last forever, and voters will begin showing dramatic shifts in their beliefs. During such party realignments, existing party affiliations experience upheaval as voters may change parties. Before such shifts, historians may observe one or more critical elections that may polarize voters in reaction to developments such as war or an economic depression.
Several such shifts have already occurred in American politics: Thomas Jefferson formed the Democratic-Republican party to opposed the Federalists, the Whig Party dissolved and the Republican Party gained strength over the issue of slavery, and voters turned away from Republicans in favor of Democrats in response to the New Deal. More gradual shifts in party coalitions are called secular realignments, and they may be caused by the shrinking of a party’s base of support.

16. 11.1 FIGURE 11.2: What does a realignment look like?
This figure shows the realignment shifts between 1928 and 1932.

17. 11.1
11.1 A major shift in power and popularity from one party to another is a:
Party realignment.
Party machine.
Secular realignment.
Critical election.
Let’s answer this review question about the history of political parties in the United States.

18. 11.1
11.1 A major shift in power and popularity from one party to another is a:
Party realignment.
Party machine.
Secular realignment.
Critical election.
Drastic shifts in party loyalty, which can dramatically alter the political landscape, are called party realignments.

19. The Organization of American Political Parties
11.2
The Organization of American Political Parties
The National Party
The National Convention
State and Local Parties
Informal Groups
It comes as no surprise that the national party organization sits at the top of the party system. A chairperson leads the national party, and every four years the national committee of each party organizes a convention to nominate a candidate for the presidency. These national organizations also play a crucial role in fundraising for individuals’ campaigns.
Yet it’s at the state and local levels, not the national level, where the heart of party activism can be found. Almost all government regulation of political parties is handled by the states. Parties also provide campaign strategy expertise.

20. 11.2 FIGURE 11.3: How are political parties organized?
This figure illustrates how the political parties are organized at the local, state, and national levels.

21. The National Party 11.2 The national chairperson
Often selected by president or newly nominated presidential candidate
Chief fundraiser and spokesperson
The national committee
Coordinates national convention and presidential campaign
Democratic National Committee (DNC)
Republican National Committee (RNC)
Each national party has a chairperson. Often, that person is selected by the president or the newly nominated presidential candidate. The chairperson fills many roles. He or she primarily acts as the chief fundraiser and spokesperson for the party. But the job doesn’t end there. The chairperson must keep the peace within the party, and find common ground among different factions.
Each national party also has a governing body in the form of the national committee. The committee coordinates the national convention every four years, as well as the subsequent presidential campaign.

22. The National Convention
11.2
The National Convention
Every four years
Present a positive image of the candidate
Serve as pep rallies
Delegates
Formerly selected by party leaders, now often elected in primary elections and caucuses
Superdelegates
Allow Democratic Party some control
National conventions can be exciting to watch. Every four years, each major party holds its convention in order to formerly nominate a candidate for the office of president. Because the nominees are known ahead of time, the real purpose of conventions these days is to present a positive image of the candidate to the country and to energize voters by holding a pep rally.
Delegates attend the convention to select the nominee. Delegates used to be picked by party leaders, but now generally are elected in local primary elections. Superdelegates are Democratic Party officials whose vote at the convention is unpledged to a candidate.

23. State and Local Parties
11.2
State and Local Parties
Roots of the party
Virtually all government regulation of political parties is handled by the states
Vast majority of party leadership positions are held at state and local level.
Precinct
Smallest voting unit; fundamental building block of the party
State executive committee
National conventions may get all the attention, but the majority of political party positions and activities are at the state and local level. Practically all government regulation of the political parties is handled by the states, and most of the party leadership positions are also at the state and local levels.
The state parties are organized into precincts, which are the fundamental building blocks of the party, and number over 100,000 in the United States. The precinct committee members are the foot soldiers of the party, and they are supported by the state executive committee, plus party committees at the city, county, and other levels.

24. 11.2 How do college students help political parties?
College students often volunteer for political campaigns. Here, students volunteer to make phone calls on behalf of 2012 Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney.

25. Informal Groups 11.2 Supportive interest groups Think tanks
Provide money and labor; labor unions, chambers of commerce
Think tanks
Institutional collections of policy-oriented researchers and academics
There’s no shortage of supportive interest groups, like labor unions for Democrats and Chambers of Commerce for Republicans, who’re willing to pitch in.
Finally, party leaders and candidates may count on think tanks, collectives of researchers and academics, to get and develop policy ideas.

26. 11.2 These people act as the “foot soldiers” of the party:
State executive committee members
National party chairpersons
Precinct committee members
Party delegates
Try to answer this review question about party organizations.

27. 11.2 These people act as the “foot soldiers” of the party:
State executive committee members
National party chairpersons
Precinct committee members
Party delegates
Typically, precinct committee members are considered the foot soldiers of the party.

28. Activities of American Political Parties
11.3
Activities of American Political Parties
Running Candidates for Office
Formulating and Promoting Policy
Organizing Government
Furthering Unity, Linkage, and Accountability
So what do the political parties do? For much of our history, the two-party system has provided the structure through which citizens organize and resolve social and political conflict and push for change. The two major parties serve society by running candidates for office, proposing and formulating policy, organizing government, and furthering unity, linkage, and accountability.

29. Running Candidates for Office
11.3
Running Candidates for Office
Raising money
Well-developed networks of donors
Raise money and disseminate it to candidates
Political parties play a crucial role in elections. First, they help raise money for candidates by using their well-developed network of donors. Historically, Republicans have been better fundraisers than Democrats, due to a larger number of wealthier donors.
Parties then distribute that money to candidates, either directly to the campaigns or indirectly through supportive mailings or television ads.

30. 11.3 FIGURE 11.4: How much money do parties raise?
This figure shows how changes in campaign finance laws have allowed both parties to raise increasing amounts of money during recent years.

31. Running Candidates for Office
11.3
Running Candidates for Office
Mobilizing support and getting out the vote
Public opinion polls and tracking surveys
Create TV advertisements
“Get out the vote” Election Day activities
The parties may also commission public opinion polls or tracking surveys on behalf of candidates. And both committees have comprehensive, committed “get out the vote” activities on Election Day.

32. Formulating and Promoting Policy
11.3
Formulating and Promoting Policy
National Party Platform
Most visible instrument used to formulate, convey, and promote public policy
Each party develops a lengthy platform outlining its positions
About two-thirds of the winning party’s platform tends to be enacted
About one-half of the losing party’s platform tends to be enacted
The national party platform is the chief tool parties use to craft, convey, and promote public policy. Each party develops and writes a lengthy platform every four years.
Political scientists have noted that roughly two-thirds of the policy statements of the winning party’s platform tend to be enacted and adopted as policy, while about one-half of the pledges of the losing party find their way into law. Political scientists suggest this shows the tendency of both parties to push broad policy positions that have widespread public support.

33. 11.3 Table 11.1: What do party platforms say?
In many ways, the 2012 Republican and Democratic platforms were diametrically opposed.

34. Organizing Government
11.3
Organizing Government
Parties in Congress
Party members in Congress select congressional leaders
Those congressional leaders hold enormous power
Just as they do in elections, political parties play a key role in organizing the operations of government. This is especially true in Congress, where the political parties arrange for the selection of the leaders, such as Speaker of the House and the Majority and Minority leaders and whips.
Congressional leadership positions carry an enormous amount of power; legislators in these positions may determine which bills are considered for a vote and who gets money to take home to the district.

35. 11.3 FIGURE 11.5: How have party unity scores changed?
This figure shows that party unity has increased dramatically over time.

36. Organizing Government
11.3
Organizing Government
The presidential party
President is informal party leader
When members of the same party can’t agree, the president may be called upon to help in his role as the informal party leader.

37. 11.3 President Dwight D. Eisenhower
President Dwight D. Eisenhower, a former military general and World War II hero, is as close to a nonpartisan president as modern America’s ever had.

38. Furthering Unity, Linkage and Accountability
11.3
Furthering Unity, Linkage and Accountability
Party role
Parties are the glue that holds elements of government and political structure together
Link together branches of government
One more means of accountability
Political scientists like to say that political parties are the glue that holds together the disparate elements of the U.S. government and political apparatus. We have a governmental system in which power’s divided and subdivided. This protects individual liberties but can make it difficult to work together and get things done.
The parties help smooth this process by linking different branches and different levels of government. Parties also smooth the election process. Party identification and organization support communication—and thus accountability—between candidate and voter.

39. 11.3 The political parties have great influence in Congress because:
Congressional representatives owe them loyalty in return for campaign help.
Parties arrange for the selection of congressional leaders.
Parties are instrumental in deciding who runs for office.
None of the above.
Can you answer this question about the parties’ influence in Congress?

40. 11.3 The political parties have great influence in Congress because:
Congressional representatives owe them loyalty in return for campaign help.
Parties arrange for the selection of congressional leaders.
Parties are instrumental in deciding who runs for office.
None of the above.
Parties arrange for the selection of Speaker of the House and Majority and Minority leaders.

41. Party Identification 11.4 Political Socialization Group Affiliations
In general, most American voters lean toward one of the political parties, whether it’s one of the two major parties or a minor party, and identify with at least some of the tenets of that party. Such party identification begins with political socialization; parents are the greatest influence on a person’s political identity. However, a person’s membership or affiliation with different groups, including the following, also affect a person’s political leanings:
• geographic region
• gender
• race and ethnicity
• age
• social and economic factors
• religion
• marital status
The above groups may change over the course of a lifetime.

42. Political Socialization
11.4
Political Socialization
Parents
Single greatest influence on political beliefs
Other aspects of adult life
Marriage
Economic status
Charismatic leaders
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Ronald Reagan
Perhaps not surprisingly, parents are the single greatest influence in developing a person’s party identification. Politically active parents who are of the same party generally raise children with strong party identification, while parents who are not politically active or who don’t share party leanings tend to raise children who are more independent.
As people get older, other aspects of their lives, such as marriage or economic status, tend to influence their political beliefs. And charismatic leaders, such as Franklin D. Roosevelt or Ronald Reagan, can also be influential.

43. Group Affiliations 11.4 Geography Gender Race and ethnicity Age
Social and economic factors
Religion
Marital status
Groups can play a key role in determining whether a person leans Democratic or Republican. When it comes to geography, Democrats tend to dominate the Northeast and California, while Republicans are strongest in the South and Midwest.
Along gender lines, more women identify with Democrats, while more men are Republican. In terms of race and ethnicity, Africans Americans and Hispanics favor Democrats. As far as age is concerned, young adults and the elderly tend to side with Democrats, while middle aged Americans tend to identify themselves as Republicans.
On economic factors, as one’s wealth increases, so does one’s chances of identifying with the Republican party. Religion is split; some religions like Democrats and others, Republicans. Finally, married people tend to side with Republicans, while never-marrieds generally are Democrats.

44. 11.4 TABLE 11.2: Who identifies as a Democrat? A Republican?
This table breaks down how different groups tend to identify politically.

45. 11.4 Which political party do Hispanics support?
Hispanic voters increasingly favor Democratic candidates.

46. 11.4
11.4 Which people have the most significant influence on a person’s political socialization?
Parents
Peers
Co-workers
Civic groups
Can you answer this review question on political socialization?

47. 11.4
11.4 Which people have the most significant influence on a person’s political socialization?
Parents
Peers
Co-workers
Civic groups
While it isn’t unheard of for a person to change political affiliation as an adult, parents are the single greatest influence on political socialization.

48. Minor Parties in the the American Two-Party System
11.5
Minor Parties in the the American Two-Party System
The formation and role of minor parties
Barriers to minor-party success
Minor parties play an interesting and important role in American politics, and often that role involves struggle. They have seen their popular ideas co-opted by one of the two major parties eager to secure the minor party’s supporters. Minor parties might make progress when the two major parties neglect new ideas or alienated groups, or if they don’t nominate ideal candidates for office. However, much of American politics, including the winner-take-all system and the Electoral College, can make it especially hard for minor parties to gain real traction in the electoral system.

49. The Formation and Role of Minor Parties
11.5
The Formation and Role of Minor Parties
Obstacles
Transitioning from social movement to party is difficult
Minor parties have had influence
Dixiecrats
Green Party
While many social movements have been powerful and influential, few have made the jump to becoming a political party. That transition’s difficult; political parties don’t just support public policies and change; they also run candidates for office. Those movements that did transition to minor, third parties have, in fact, influenced the political landscape. The Dixiecrats, who favored Southern states’ rights, pulled away from the Democrats in 1948, and the Green Party has been influential in pushing for environmental issues.

50. 11.5 TABLE 11.3: What are some of America’s minor parties?
This table describes some of America’s minor parties, such as the Libertarian and Green Parties.

51. Barriers to Minor-Party Success
11.5
Barriers to Minor-Party Success
Proportional representation
Apportions legislative seats according to percentage of votes a party receives
Winner-take-all system
Party that receives at least one more vote wins the election
Many European countries have political systems more favorable to minor parties. That’s because those countries have a system based on proportional representation, which apportions legislative seats according to the percentage of votes a political party receives.
The United States, however, uses a single-member, plurality electoral system, often called the “winner take all” system. Under this system, the party that receives at least one more vote than any other party wins the election. This approach makes it harder for third parties to gain power. The Electoral College and the rules of public financing also make it harder for minor parties to play a significant role in American politics.

52. 11.5 This voting system is more favorable to minor political parties:
Single-member, plurality electoral system
Winner-take-all electoral system
Electoral College
Proportional representation
Let’s pause to answer a quick review question about a voting system that makes it easier for a minor party to be included in government.

53. 11.5 This voting system is more favorable to minor political parties:
Single-member, plurality electoral system
Winner-take-all electoral system
Electoral College
Proportional representation
Proportional representation apportions legislative seats according to the percentage of votes a party receives.

54. Toward Reform: Red States and Blue States
11.6
Toward Reform: Red States and Blue States
United or Divided?
Causes of Polarization
Consequences of Polarization
You’re not imagining the uptick in gridlock and fighting in our political system. In recent years, political scientists have observed and noted growing polarization between the two political parties. The 24-hour news cycle carries a chunk of the blame, but clear differences also exist between the parties’ positions, both in government and among some of the most active voters and interest groups. This deep divide between the two parties can make governing difficult.

55. United or Divided? 11.6 Increasing partisan divisions
Northern liberal Republicans and southern conservative Democrats have become rare
Parties have retreated in opposite directions
Effect on Americans?
Unclear if Americans are equally polarized
Political scientists have noticed increasing divides between members of Congress over the past 20 years. As northern liberal Republicans and southern conservative Democrats have been fading away, the parties have retreated in opposite political and policy directions. This has left precious few lawmakers in the middle to foster compromise. What isn’t clear to scholars is whether this polarization is also true of the general American population.

56. Causes of Polarization
11.6
Causes of Polarization
Geographic divide
“The United States of Canada” to the north
“Jesusland” to the south
Stereotypes of political identifiers
Republicans = NASCAR
Democrats = Starbucks
Wedge issues
“Guns, God, and gays”
Abortion, gay marriage
The Internet can act as a wonderful mirror, capturing and reflecting back Americans’ political whims. Following the 2004 presidential election between Republican incumbent George W. Bush and Democratic challenger John Kerry, a satirical graphic poking fun of the state-by-state election results was circulating online. The image depicted the northern Democratic, or “blue” states that had sided with Kerry as “The United States of Canada,” while the southern Republican “red” states that had sided with Bush were labeled “Jesusland.”
Scholars have pointed to this graphic to show Americans’ own perception of how polarized we may be. Adding to that, stereotypes of political identifiers have become more common, with Republicans being connected to NASCAR and Democrats to Starbucks. And as an electorate, we seem to have become more agitated by wedge issues, or cultural hot potatoes such as the “guns, God and gays” phrase and abortion or gay marriage.

57. Consequences of Polarization
11.6
Consequences of Polarization
Congress
Least productive in history
Lack of moderates, lower incentive to compromise
Consequences to electorate
Forcing moderate electorate to choose between extremes may increase voter apathy
Surely the divisiveness has a cost. The consequences of the growing division between the two parties have been on display in Congress, with political scientists noting that we’ve had among the least productive Congresses in history. The lack of moderate members and the lower incentive to compromise has led to staggering gridlock. And what effect could this have on American citizens themselves? Scholars have suggested that forcing generally moderate Americans to choose between political extremes could increase voter apathy.
Activity: Ask: How does the preference for divided government reconcile with increasing polarization in Congress? Consider using a segment from President Barack Obama’s address to the 2004 Democratic National Convention ( which challenges the idea of polarization.

58. 11.6
11.6 Wedge issues have been blamed in part for recent deepening divides. Which are wedge issues?
“Guns, God, and gays”
Abortion and contraception
Hot-button cultural issues
All of the above
Let’s try to answer this question about political polarization in America.

59. 11.6
11.6 Wedge issues have been blamed in part for recent deepening divides. Which are wedge issues?
“Guns, God, and gays”
Abortion and contraception
Hot-button cultural issues
All of the above
Option C is the definition, and options A and B are examples.

60. 11
Discussion Questions
Is the two-party system good for America? Why is the country so polarized? How can the problem be fixed?

61. 11
Video: So What?
Who’s in the middle of American politic,s and why do we see so few of our politicians appealing to them? Author Larry J. Sabato argues that more moderate politicians who are willing to compromise must enter politics if anything’s ever going to get done.