1. Chapter 2
The Research Process: Coming to Terms

2. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES - STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Describe the research process from formulating questions to seeking and finding solutions.
Describe the difference between dependent and independent variables.
Identify other types of variables that may interfere with the research process.
Define a hypothesis and describe how it works.
Discuss the value of the null hypothesis.

3. OBJECTIVES, CONTINUED - STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Describe the differences between a null hypothesis and a research hypothesis.
List the characteristics of a good hypothesis.
Explain the difference between a sample and the population.
Define statistical significance and explain its importance.

4. CHAPTER OVERVIEW From Problem to Solution All About Variables
Other Important Types of Variables
Hypotheses
Samples and Populations
The Concept of Significance

5. FROM PROBLEM TO SOLUTION

6. WHAT IS RESEARCH ALL ABOUT, ANYWAY?
Increasing our understanding of how and why we behave the way we do!!

7. THE RESEARCH PROCESS: COMING TO TERMS
From Problem to Solution
Noting an interesting question
Stating the question in such a way that it can be answered
The Language of Research

8. ALL ABOUT VARIABLES

9. VARIABLES
Variables are a class of outcomes that can take on more than one value
The more precisely a variable is measured, the more useful the measurement is

10. DEPENDENT VARIABLES The outcomes of a research study
Depend on the experimental treatment

11. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Treatments or conditions under control of the researcher
Levels—at least two different values of the independent variable must be present

12. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES IN FACTORIAL DESIGNS

13. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES:
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES: WHAT MAKES GOOD VARIABLES?
Independent variable is not confounded
Levels do not vary systematically with other variables
Dependent variable is sensitive to changes in the independent variable

14. OTHER IMPORTANT TYPES OF VARIABLES

15. OTHER IMPORTANT TYPES OF VARIABLES
Control Variable: Has a potential influence on the dependent variable
Extraneous Variable: Has an unpredictable impact on the dependent variable
Moderator Variable: Variables related to independent or dependent variables, and hiding the true relationship between independent and dependent variables

16. Other Terms You Might See
VARIABLES—A SUMMARY
Type of Variable
Definition
Other Terms You Might See
Dependent
A variable that is measured to see whether the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable had an effect
Outcome variable
Results variable
Criterion variable
Independent
A variable that is manipulated to examine its impact on a dependent variable
Treatment
Factor
Predictor variable
Control
A variable that is related to the dependent variable, the influence of which needs to be removed
Restricting variable
Extraneous
A variable that is related to the dependent variable or independent variable that is not part of the experiment
Threatening variable
Moderator
A variable that is related to the dependent variable or independent variable and has an impact on the dependent variable
Interacting variable

17. HYPOTHESES

18. HYPOTHESIS Reflects the general problem under study
Restates the general problem in a form that is precise enough to allow testing

19. NULL HYPOTHESIS
States that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables under study
Ho: µ1 = µ2
Ho: Null hypothesis
µ1: Theoretical average of population 1
µ2: Theoretical average of population 2

20. PURPOSE OF NULL HYPOTHESIS
A starting point for analysis
Accepted as true absent other information
Assumes that chance caused any observed differences
Provides a benchmark for comparison

21. THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
A statement of inequality
A relationship exists between the independent and dependent variables
H1: ≠
H1: Research hypothesis
: Theoretical average of population 1
: Theoretical average of population 2 X1 X2

22. DIRECTIONAL VS. NONDIRECTIONAL RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
Nondirectional Research Hypothesis
Groups are different, but direction is not specified
H1: ≠
Directional Research Hypothesis
Groups are different, and direction is specified
H1: >
H1: < X1 X2 X1 X2 X1 X2

23. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Directly tested during research process
To compare against null hypothesis

24. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NULL AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
Equality between variables
Refers to population
Indirectly tested
Stated using Greek symbols (µ)
Implied
Research
Inequality between variables
Refers to sample
Directly tested
Stated using Roman symbols ( )
Explicit X

25. WHAT MAKES A GOOD HYPOTHESIS?
Is stated in declarative form
Posits a relationship between variables
Reflects theory or literature
Is brief and to the point
Is testable

26. SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS

27. SAMPLES AND POPULATIONS
The SAMPLE is a representative portion of a POPULATION
The POPULATION is the entire group of interest
Results from the SAMPLE should generalize to the POPULATION

28. SIGNIFICANCE

29. SIGNIFICANCE
Observed differences (PROBABLY) result from the treatment and not from chance
Why?
Influences other than the treatment
Significance level = risk associated with not being 100% certain that null hypothesis is incorrect

30. HAVE WE MET THE OBJECTIVES? CAN YOU:
Describe the research process from formulating questions to seeking and finding solutions?
Describe the difference between dependent and independent variables?
Identify other types of variables that may interfere with the research process?
Define a hypothesis and describe how it works?
Discuss the value of the null hypothesis?

31. OBJECTIVES, CONTINUED CAN YOU:
Describe the differences between a null hypothesis and a research hypothesis?
List the characteristics of a good hypothesis?
Explain the difference between a sample and the population?
Define statistical significance and explain its importance?