1. CHAPTER TEN
Film History

2. What Is Film History?
Film history traces the development of moving images from early experiments with image reproduction and photography through the invention of the movies in the early 1890s, as well as subsequent stylistic, financial, technological, and social developments in cinema that have occurred up to now

3. Sunset Boulevard (1959). Billy Wilder, director
Sunset Boulevard (1959). Billy Wilder, director. Norma Desmond (Gloria Swanson), an aging silent-film star, declares,“I am big, it’s the movies that got small.” The conversion to sound is one of the major turning points in film history.

4. Four Traditional Approaches to Studying Film History
The aesthetic approach
The technological approach
The economic approach
Film as social history

5. The Aesthetic Approach
Seeks to evaluate individual movies and/or directors using criteria that assess their artistic significance and influence

6. The Technological Approach
Examines the circumstances surrounding the development of each technological advance, as well as subsequent improvements
Focuses on the interaction of technology with aesthetics, modes of production, and economic factors

7. The Economic Approach
Examines the economic history of the individual movie, as well as the place in the economic history of the movie’s studio and the historical period and country in which it was produced

8. Film as Social History
Because society and culture influence the movies, and vice versa, the movies serve as primary sources for studying society
Considers such factors as religion, politics, and cultural trends and taboos
Asks to what extent, if any, a particular movie was produced to sway public opinion or effect social change
Examines the complex interaction between the movies – as a social institution – and other social institutions

9. A Short Overview of Film History to 1947: Precinema
Photography – “writing with light,” coined by Sir John Herschel (1839)
Camera obscura (Latin for dark chamber) – a location large enough for a viewer to stand inside. Light entering through a tiny hole on one side of the space projects an image from outside the space onto the opposite wall.
Series photography – records the phases of an action

10. Figure 10.1 Camera Obscura

11. Milestones in Photography
Negative (William Henry Fox Talbot)
Revolver photographique – chronophotographic gun (Pierre-Jules-César Janssen, 1874)
First series of photographs of continuous motion (Eadweard Muybridge, 1877)
Zoopraxiscope (Muybridge, 1880)
Fusil photographique (Étienne-Jules Marey, 1882)

12. Galloping Horse (1877). Eadweard Muybridge, photographer
Galloping Horse (1877). Eadweard Muybridge, photographer. An example of series photography.

13. The First Movies (1891–1903)
Kinetograph and Kinetoscope (W. K. L. Dickson, 1891)
Edison Kinetoscopic Record of a Sneeze (1894) – first film
Cinématographe (1895) and actualitiés – Auguste and Louis Lumière
Georges Méliès – the cinema’s first narrative artist

14. Black Maria. Thomas Edison’s Black Maria – the first motion-picture “studio.”

15. Black Maria. The Kinetoscope within the Black Maria.

16. Seminary Girls (1897). Thomas Edison, director
Seminary Girls (1897). Thomas Edison, director. This staged scene of young girls in a pillow fight until a matron interrupts them was photographed in Edison’s first studio, the Black Maria.

17. Children Digging for Clams (1896). Auguste and Louis Lumière, directors. One of the Lumière Brothers’ actualitiés – an aesthetically pleasing interpretation of an actual event. Children Digging for Clams, © 1896 Lumière.

18. Long Distance Wireless Photography (1908). Georges Méliès, director
Long Distance Wireless Photography (1908). Georges Méliès, director. Even in its infancy, film had magic. Long Distance Wireless Photography, © Image Entertainment.

19. The Great Train Robbery (1903). Edwin S. Porter, director
The Great Train Robbery (1903). Edwin S. Porter, director. The beginnings of cinematic narrative. The Great Train Robbery, © 1908 Edison Manufacturing Company.

20. 1908–1927: Origins of the Classical Hollywood Style – Silent Period
D. W. Griffith’s developments in narrative form
Crystallization of classical Hollywood style and stature
Development of movie genres
Early experiments with color and animation
Feature-length films began to replace short films
The movie director was a central development
Walt Disney made his first cartoon in 1922

21. Making an American Citizen (1912). Alice Guy Blanche, director
Making an American Citizen (1912). Alice Guy Blanche, director. Blanche founded her own studio and made dozens of narrative films. This film is also important because of its outspoken feminist message.

22. The Birth of a Nation (1915). D. W. Griffith, director
The Birth of a Nation (1915). D. W. Griffith, director. Despite its racist content, Griffith’s film included a remarkable set of technical achievements. The Birth of a Nation, © 1915 D. W. Griffith Productions.

23. 1919–1931: German Expressionism
Distorted and exaggerated settings; compositions of unnatural spaces
Use of oblique angles and nonparallel lines
Moving and subjective camera
Highly stylized acting; unnatural costumes, hairstyles, and makeup

24. The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920). Robert Wiene, director
The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920). Robert Wiene, director. German expressionism speaks through the use of exaggerated letters echoing the graphics of the movie’s painted settings. The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, © 1920 Decla-Bioscop AG.

25. The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920). Robert Wiene, director
The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920). Robert Wiene, director. German expressionism reflected the general atmosphere of cynicism, alienation, and disillusionment. The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, © 1920 Decla-Bioscop AG.

26. Nosferatu, a Symphony of Horror (1922). F. W. Murnau, director
Nosferatu, a Symphony of Horror (1922). F. W. Murnau, director. German expressionism gave birth to the horror-film genre. Nosferatu, © 1922 Jofa-Atelier Berlin-Johannistha.

27. The Last Laugh (1924). F. W. Murnau, director
The Last Laugh (1924). F. W. Murnau, director. Important for its impressive use of moving camera and the camera’s subjective point of view. The Last Laugh, © 1924 Universum Film (UFA).

28. 1918–1930: French Avant-Garde
Short dadaist and surrealist films of an anticonventional, absurdist nature
Short naturalistic psychological studies
Feature-length films that emphasized pure visual form

29. The Fall of the House of Usher (1928). Jean Epstein, director
The Fall of the House of Usher (1928). Jean Epstein, director. Avant-garde captivated audiences with its complex psychological themes and dreamlike qualities. The Fall of the House of Usher, © 1928 Films Jean Epstein.

30. The Wheel (1923). Abel Gance, director
The Wheel (1923). Abel Gance, director. A feature-length film that embodies naturalistic philosophy and reflects Griffith’s editing style. The Wheel, © 1923 Films Abel Gance.

31. 1924–1930: Soviet Montage Movement
Directors: Dziga Vertov, Lev Kuleshov, Sergei Eisenstein, Vsevolod Pudovkin
Montage – to fragment and reassemble footage so as to manipulate the viewer’s perception and understanding
Eisenstein’s “montage of attractions”

32. The Man with the Movie Camera (1929). Dziga Vertov, director
The Man with the Movie Camera (1929). Dziga Vertov, director. This movement represents a high point of cinematic experimentation and innovation. The Man with the Movie Camera, © 1929 VUFKU.

33. Alexander Nevsky (1938). Sergei Eisenstein, director
Alexander Nevsky (1938). Sergei Eisenstein, director. The movie’s “Battle of the Ice” sequence has influenced many other movies, including Star Wars.

34. Battleship Potemkin (1925). Sergei Eisenstein, director
Battleship Potemkin (1925). Sergei Eisenstein, director. One of the fundamental landmarks of cinema. Battleship Potemkin, © 1925 Goskino.

35. 1927–1947: Classical Hollywood Style in Hollywood’s Golden Age
Transition from silent to sound production (1927)
Consolidation of the studio system
Exploitation of familiar genres
Motion Picture Production Code
A new “look” to movies
Economic success of feature-length narrative films

36. The Jazz Singer (1927). Alan Crosland, director
The Jazz Singer (1927). Alan Crosland, director. The transition to sound began in 1927 with The Jazz Singer and was completed in The Jazz Singer, © 1927/1952 Warner Bros. Pictures.

37. Easy Living (1937). Mitchell Leisen, director
Easy Living (1937). Mitchell Leisen, director. The genres, such as screwball comedy, dominated production during this era. Easy Living, © 1937 Paramount Pictures.

38. Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939). Frank Capra, director
Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939). Frank Capra, director. Movies became inextricably linked with the development of American culture and society. Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, © 1939 Columbia Pictures Corporation.

39. Baby Face (1933). Alfred E. Green, director
Baby Face (1933). Alfred E. Green, director. This pre–Production Code film was rejected by the New York State Censorship Board. Baby Face, © 1933 Stable Films.

40. Hollywood’s Golden Age: Cinematic Style
Narrative and editing conventions adapted to sound production
Significant innovations in design, cinematography, lighting, acting, and editing
Improvements in lighting, makeup, and film stock
Black-and-white film stock – the industry standard through the 1950s

41. Gone with the Wind (1939). Victor Fleming, director
Gone with the Wind (1939). Victor Fleming, director. The enduring symbol of the Golden Age of Hollywood. Gone with the Wind, © 1939 Selznick International Pictures.

42. 1927–1947: Hollywood’s Golden Age: Citizen Kane
A radical film for Hollywood that revolutionized the medium 46 years after the invention of motion pictures
Astonishing complexity and speed of narrative
Achieved the highest degree of cinematic realism
Sound design – an aural realism equivalent to the movie’s visual realism
The cast rehearsed for a month before shooting began

43. Citizen Kane (1941). Orson Welles, director
Citizen Kane (1941). Orson Welles, director. Deep-focus cinematography is one of the many cinematic innovations in this film that revolutionized the medium forty-six years after the invention of motion pictures. Citizen Kane, © 1941 Mercury Productions.

44. 1942–1951: Italian Neorealism
Shot on location; used nonprofessional actors; documentary visual style
Long takes, spare dialogue, ambiguous endings
Humanist – placed the highest value on the lives of ordinary working people

45. Ossessione (1943) Luchino Visconti, director
Ossessione (1943) Luchino Visconti, director. A transition between Italian eras, it uses older Italian cinematic traditions but foreshadows neorealism in its depiction of the daily routines of ordinary people.

46. The Bicycle Thieves (1948). Vittorio De Sica, director
The Bicycle Thieves (1948). Vittorio De Sica, director. A neorealist masterpiece. The Bicycle Thieves, © 1948 Produzioni De Sica.

47. 1959–1964: French New Wave
Origins: 1930s poetic realism; philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre
Cinéma vérité style – lightweight filmmaking devices
André Bazin – realism, mise-en-scène, authorship; Cahiers du cinéma
Self-reflexive films
Director as auteur

48. French New Wave: Breathless
Rapid action, handheld cameras, unusual camera angles, direct address to the camera, borderline improvisational acting, anarchic politics, emphasis on sound’s importance, especially words.
Radical, restless editing style
Broad range of pastiche (intertextual reference)

49. Breathless (1960). Jean-Luc Godard, director
Breathless (1960). Jean-Luc Godard, director. French New Wave – beginnings. Breathless, © 1960 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.

50. The 400 Blows (1959). François Truffaut, director
The 400 Blows (1959). François Truffaut, director. French New Wave beginnings. Truffaut wrote the original treatment for Breathless, and made a gift of it to Godard.

51. The Butcher (1970). Alfred Hitchcock, director
The Butcher (1970). Alfred Hitchcock, director. Hitchcock's influence on the New Wave was unmistakable, and his movies were greatly admired by New Wave directors.

52. Cleo from 5 to 7 (1962). Agnès Varda, director
Cleo from 5 to 7 (1962). Agnès Varda, director. French New Wave films: cinematic form is more important than content. Cleo from 5 to 7, © 1962 Ciné Tamaris.

53. 1947 to the Present: New Cinemas in Britain, Europe, and Asia
Made a clean break with the cinematic past
Injected new vitality into filmmaking
Explored cinema as a subject in itself

54. England and the Free Cinema Movement
Free Cinema (1956–1959) – a cinema of social realism and documentary films
British New Cinema (1960s) – dealt with controversial issues of class, race, gender, and sexual orientation

55. Victim (1961). Basil Dearden, director
Victim (1961). Basil Dearden, director. The first major movie about gay rights. Victim, © 1961 Allied Film Makers.

56. Denmark and the Dogme 95 Movement
Founded in 1995 by three directors, including Lars von Trier
“The Vow of Chastity” – manifesto of ten rules
Directors often broke their vows

57. Breaking the Waves (1996). Lars von Trier, director
Breaking the Waves (1996). Lars von Trier, director. Breaking the rules in Breaking the Waves. Breaking the Waves, © 1996 Argus Film Produktie.

58. Germany and Das Neue Kino (1962–1980s)
Oberhausen Manifesto (1962) – sought to create a new cinema free from historical antecedents, one that criticized bourgeois German society and exposed viewers to new modes of looking at movies

59. The American Friend (1977). Wim Wenders, director
The American Friend (1977). Wim Wenders, director. German New Wave filmmakers had a genuine affection for Hollywood genres. American Friend, © 1977 Filmverlag der Autore.

60. Japan’s and Postwar Filmmaking
Owed much to Japanese literacy and theatrical traditions
Strongly influenced by John Ford, Howard Hawks, and Orson Welles
Akira Kurosawa is the most recognizable (and Western-style) director, followed by Kenji Mizoguchi and Yasujiro Ozu

61. Ran (1985) Akira Kurosawa, director
Ran (1985) Akira Kurosawa, director. An adaption of Shakespeare’s King Lear, Kurosawa’s film is full of blood, violence, suffering, and death, qualities depicted in 12th- and 13th-century Japan.

62. Sansho the Bailiff (1954). Kenji Mizoguchi, director
Sansho the Bailiff (1954). Kenji Mizoguchi, director. In sharp contrast to Ran, this film’s calm painterly compositions demonstrate Mizoguchi’s interest in issues of freedom and women’s place in society.

63. Tokyo Story (1953). Yasujiro Ozu, director
Tokyo Story (1953). Yasujiro Ozu, director. This image’s deep-space composition permits us to see the rooms behind this group, While it’s a simple story and Ozu observes it with calm detachment, its ending reminds us of the oneness of humanity, helping to make it an international success.

64. Japan’s Nubero Bagu (1950s–1970s)
Hiroshi Teshigahara, Yasuzo Masumura, Nagisa Oshima
Significantly influenced by the French New Wave
Emphasis on upsetting cinematic and social conventions

65. In the Realm of the Senses (1976). Nagisa Oshima, director
In the Realm of the Senses (1976). Nagisa Oshima, director. Sex and violence. In the Realm of the Senses, © 1976 Argos Films.

66. China and Postwar Filmmaking: People’s Republic
Since 1976 (the death of Chairman Mao), filmmakers are more concerned with individuals
Chen Kaige, Yimou Zhang, Tian Zhuangzhuang have managed to make films about taboo subjects despite a repressive society

67. Farewell, My Concubine (1993). Chen Kaige, director. Sex and politics
Farewell, My Concubine (1993). Chen Kaige, director. Sex and politics. Farewell, My Concubine, © 1993 Beijing Film Studio.

68. China and Postwar Filmmaking: Hong Kong
1920s–1970s – wuxia and kung fu
Melodramatic plot; philosophical codes of honor
Spectacular violence; brilliantly choreographed fight sequences
Conflicts between cops and gangsters; lavish production values

69. Hong Kong: Formal Characteristics
Spectacular studio settings and natural locations
Saturated colors; moody lighting
Constant motion (slow and fast); disjointed editing techniques
Extensive computer manipulation of images and motion

70. Hong Kong New Wave (late 1970s–early 1980s)
Stimulated cinematic innovations
Encouraged the movement of directors between TV and mainstream cinema
Introduced new genres and tackled formerly taboo subjects

71. A Better Tomorrow (1986). John Woo, director
A Better Tomorrow (1986). John Woo, director. Classic Hong Kong cinema: violent action depicted in brilliantly choreographed scenes. A Better Tomorrow, © 1986 Cinema City Film Productions.

72. China and Postwar Filmmaking: Taiwan
Developed independently of Hong Kong and the People’s Republic
Concerned with realistic depictions of ordinary people
Ang Lee, Hsiao-hsien Hou, Edward Yang

73. Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000). Ang Lee, director
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000). Ang Lee, director. The films of the Taiwan-born director Ang Lee are known for their diversity and acclaim. Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, © 2000 Asia Union Film & Entertainment Ltd.

74. India Largest film industry in the world
Produces 1,200 features and even more documentaries each year; commonly known as Bollywood
Satyajit Ray is the dominant figure in Indian cinema
Ray’s work represents the “new Indian cinema,” or Parallel Cinema, meaning it exists alongside the mainstream commercial industries in the world’s sixth-largest economy

75. Panther Panchali (1955) Satyajit Ray, director
Panther Panchali (1955) Satyajit Ray, director. Ray is well known for his attention to details in the lives of ordinary people and for the subtle, detached angle with which he views them in his movies. The eye is a symbol of consciousness.

76. 1965–1995: The New American Cinema
Prevailing spirit of innovation led to a range of styles
Adapted cinematic conventions to a new audience
Predominance of sex and violence in content and protagonists (male/female)
More structurally complex plots, with new storytelling techniques

77. Stranger Than Paradise (1984). Jim Jarmusch, director
Stranger Than Paradise (1984). Jim Jarmusch, director. A milestone in the New American Cinema. Stranger Than Paradise, © 1984 Cinesthesia Productions.

78. Bonnie and Clyde (1967). Arthur Penn, director
Bonnie and Clyde (1967). Arthur Penn, director. Faye Dunaway as Bonnie – a character as equal to her male counterpart as she can be. Bonnie and Clyde, © 1967 Tatira-Hiller Productions.

79. Chinatown (1974). Roman Polanski, director
Chinatown (1974). Roman Polanski, director. Faye Dunaway stars as a femme fatale, and, thanks to the rising feminist movement, her character is at least the equal of her male counterpart, J. J. Gittes (Jack Nicholson).

80. The New American Cinema Style
Innovation in editing with more stylistic touches
More films shot on location; depiction of recognizable actuality
Major experimentation with sound design
Definite reliance on naturalistic acting styles

81. The Wild Bunch (1969). Sam Peckinpah, director
The Wild Bunch (1969). Sam Peckinpah, director. The New American cinema: good stories and superb filmmaking meets sex and violence. The Wild Bunch, © 1969 Warner Brothers/Seven Arts

82. New American Cinema: Other Directions
Documentary – Direct Cinema (Maysles Brothers, D. A. Pennebaker)
Experimental films – Stan Brakhage, Andy Warhol
Feature-length animated films have thrived

83. Grey Gardens (1975). Albert and David Maysles, directors
Grey Gardens (1975). Albert and David Maysles, directors. Documentary film as pure cinema. Grey Gardens, © 1975 Portrait Films.

84. Dog Star Man (1962–64). Stan Brakhage, director
Dog Star Man (1962–64). Stan Brakhage, director. Challenging perceptions: the experimental film work of Stan Brakhage. Dog Star Man, © 1962 Stant Backhage.

85. Review
1. What are the four traditional approaches to studying film history?
a. Technological, social, cultural, aesthetic
b. Aesthetic, technological, economic, social
c. Economic, cinematic, social, cultural
d. Cultural, technological, rhetorical, scholarly
ANS: b REF: Basic Approaches to Studying Film History, Ch. 10, p. 433

86. Review
2. The intermediary step between still photography and cinematography is
a. series photography.
b. fusil photography.
c. revolver photography.
d. chronotography.
ANS: a REF: A Short Overview of Film History, Ch. 10, p. 436

87. Review 3. Black Maria was the first a. motion picture film.
b. motion picture projector.
c. motion picture studio.
d. complete motion picture.
ANS: c REF: A Short Overview of Film History, Ch. 10, p. 438

88. Review
4. The Lumière brothers’ actualités are an example of what type of nonfiction film?
a. Instructional
b. Propaganda
c. Factual
d. Documentary
ANS: c REF: A Short Overview of Film History, Ch. 10, p. 439

89. Review
5. Which film movement was based on the idea that the movie director is an auteur?
a. German expressionism
b. Soviet montage
c. Italian neorealism
d. French New Wave
ANS: d REF: A Short Overview of Film History, Ch. 10, p. 438

90. Review 6. Which is NOT one of the ten rules of the Dogme 95 Manifesto?
a. Shooting must be done on location.
b. The camera must be handheld.
c. The film must be genre-specific.
d. The film must be in color.
ANS: c REF: New Cinemas in Great Britain, Europe, and Asia, Ch. 10, p. 463