1. Pricing for International Markets
Chapter 18

2. Learning Objectives
LO1 Components of pricing as competitive tools in international marketing LO2 How to control pricing in parallel import or gray markets LO3 Price escalation and how to minimize its effect LO4 Countertrading and its place in international marketing practices LO5 The mechanics of price quotations LO6 The mechanics of getting paid

3. International Pricing
Setting and changing prices are key strategic marketing decisions
Prices both set values and communicate in international markets
An offering’s price must reflect the quality and value the consumer perceives in the product
In setting a price in international markets, different tariffs, costs, attitudes, competition, currency fluctuations, and methods of price quotation need to be taken into account.

4. Pricing Policy
The country in which business is being conducted, the type of product, variations in competitive conditions, and other strategic factors affect pricing activity
Active marketing in several countries compounds the variables relating to price policy
An explicitly thought out, defined pricing policy helps avoid setting a price in haste

5. Pricing Objectives In general, price decisions are viewed in two ways:
Pricing as an active instrument of accomplishing marketing objectives, or
Pricing as a static element in a business decision
If prices are viewed as an active instrument, the company sets prices (rather than following market prices) to achieve specific objectives, whether targeted returns on profit, targeted sales volumes, or some other specific goals. The company that follows the second approach, pricing as a static element, probably exports only excess inventory, places a low priority on foreign business, and views its export sales as passive contributions to sales volume.

6. Pricing Objectives
The more control a company has over the final selling price of a product, the better it is able to achieve its marketing goals
It is not always possible to control end prices
Broader product lines and the larger the number of countries involved, the more complex the process of controlling prices charged to the end user

7. Parallel Importation or Gray Markets
The possibility of a parallel market occurs whenever price differences are greater than the cost of transportation between two markets
On account of competition, firms may have to charge different prices from country to country
Parallel imports develop when importers buy products from distributors in one country and sell them in another to distributors who are not part of the manufacturer’s regular distribution system
Restrictions brought about by import quotas and high tariffs also can lead to parallel imports and make illegal imports attractive. India has a three-tier duty structure on computer parts ranging from 50 to 80 percent on imports. As a result, estimates indicate that as much as 35 percent of India’s domestic computer hardware sales are accounted for by the gray market.

8. Parallel Importation or Gray Markets
The possibility of a parallel market occurs whenever price differences are greater than the cost of transportation between two markets
For example, the ulcer drug Losec sells for only $18 in Spain but goes for $39 in Germany; and the heart drug Plavix costs $55 in France and sells for $79 in London
In Europe, because of different taxes and competitive price structures, prices for the same product vary between countries. When this situation occurs, it is not unusual for companies to find themselves competing in one country with their own products imported from another European country at lower prices.

9. Parallel Importation or Gray Markets
Thus, it is possible for an intermediary to buy products in countries where it is less expensive and divert it to countries where the price is higher and make a profit
Exclusive distribution, a practice often used by companies to maintain high retail ­margins encourage retailers to stock large assortments, or to maintain the exclusive-quality image of a product, can create a favorable condition for parallel importing
The high-priced designer sportswear industry is also vulnerable to such practices (Nike, Adidas, and Calvin Klein).

10. Exhibit 18.1: How Gray Market Goods End up in U.S. Stores
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11. Approaches to International Pricing
Full-Cost Pricing: no unit of a similar product is different from any other unit in terms of cost, which must bear its full share of the total fixed and variable cost.
Variable-Cost Pricing: firms regard foreign sales as bonus sales and assume that any return over their variable cost makes a contribution to net profit

12. Approaches to International Pricing
Skimming Pricing:  This is used to reach a segment of the market that is relatively price insensitive and thus willing to pay a premium price for a product
Penetration Pricing: This is used to stimulate market growth and capture market share by deliberately offering products at low prices
The existence of larger markets attracts competition and, as is often the case, the emergence of multiple product lines, thus leading to price competition, therefor skim pricing doesn’t usually work in today’s global world. Penetration pricing most often is used to acquire and hold share of market as a competitive maneuver.
As a country’s economy grows and the distribution of wealth becomes more equitable, multiple income levels develop, distinct market segments emerge, and multiple price levels and price/quality perceptions increase in importance.

13. Price Escalation
Price escalation refers to the added costs incurred as a result of exporting products from one country to another
Tariffs and the Japanese distribution system add substantially to the final price in Japan.
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14. Factors in Price Escalation
Costs of Exporting: the term relates to situations in which ultimate prices are raised by shipping costs, insurance, packing, tariffs, longer channels of distribution, larger middlemen margins, special taxes, administrative costs, and exchange rate fluctuations
The majority of these costs arise as a direct result of moving goods across borders from one country to another and often combine to escalate the final price.

15. Factors in Price Escalation
Taxes, Tariffs, and Administrative Costs: These costs results in higher prices, which are generally passed on to the buyer of the product

16. Factors in Price Escalation
Inflation: Inflation causes consumer prices to escalate and the consumer is faced with rising prices that eventually exclude many consumers from the market

17. Factors in Price Escalation
Middleman and Transportation Costs: Longer channel length, performance of marketing functions and higher margins may make it necessary to increase prices

18. Factors in Price Escalation
Exchange Rate Fluctuations and Varying Currency Values: Currency values swing vis-à-vis other currencies on a daily basis, which may make it necessary to increase prices

19. Exhibit 18.2: Sample Causes and Effects of Price Escalation
Notes: All figures in U.S. dollars; CIF = cost, insurance, and freight; n.a. = not applicable. The exhibit assumes that all domestic transportation costs are absorbed by the middleman. Transportation, tariffs, and middleman margins vary from country to country, but for the purposes of comparison, only a few of the possible variations are shown.
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20. Exhibit 18.3: How Are Foreign Trade Zones Used?
Source: Lewis E. Leibowitz, “An Overview of Foreign Trade Zones,” Europe, Winter-Spring 1987, p. 12; “Cheap Imports,” International Business, March 1993, pp ; “Free-Trade Zones: Global Overview and Future Prospects,”
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21. Approaches to Lessening Price Escalation
Lowering Cost of Goods: Firms can lower costs by eliminating costly features in products or by manufacturing products in countries where labor costs are cheaper
Lowering Tariffs: Firms can lower prices by categorizing products in classifications where the tariffs are lower

22. Approaches to Lessening Price Escalation
Lowering Distribution Costs: Firms can design channels that are shorter, have fewer middlemen, and by reducing or eliminating middleman markup
Using Foreign Trade Zones: Firms can manufacture products in free trade zones where the incentive offered is the elimination of local taxes, which keep prices down

23. Definitions of Dumping
World Trade Organization (WTO) rules allow for the imposition of a duty when goods are dumped
A countervailing duty or minimum access volume (MAV), which restricts the amount a country will import, may be imposed on foreign goods benefiting from subsidies whether in production, export, or transportation

24. Definitions of Dumping
One approach classifies international shipments as dumped if the products are sold below their cost of production
The other approach characterizes dumping as selling goods in a foreign market below the price of the same goods in the home market

25. Leasing as a Pricing Tool
Leasing opens the door to a large segment of nominally financed foreign firms that can be sold on a lease option but might be unable to buy for cash
Leasing can ease the problems of selling new, experimental equipment, because less risk is involved for the users
Leasing helps guarantee better maintenance and service on overseas equipment
Equipment leased and in use helps sell other companies in that country
Lease revenue tends to be more stable over a period of time than direct sales would be

26. Countertrade as a Pricing Tool
Countertrade is a pricing tool that every international marketer must be ready to employ
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27. Four Distinct Transactions in Countertrading
Barter: is the direct exchange of goods between two parties in a transaction
Compensation deals: is the payment in goods and in cash

28. Four Distinct Transactions in Countertrading
Counter-purchase or off-set trade: the seller agrees to sell a product at a set price to a buyer and receives payment in cash and may also buy goods from the buyer for the total monetary amount involved in the first contract or for a set percentage of that amount, which will be marketed by the seller in its home market
Buy-back: This type of agreement is made the seller agrees to accept as partial payment a certain portion of the output that are produced from the plant or machinery that are sold to the buyer

29. Why Purchasers Impose Countertrade Obligations
To Preserve Hard Currency
To Improve Balance of Trade
To Gain Access to New Markets
To Upgrade Manufacturing Capabilities
To Maintain Prices of Export Goods
To Force Reinvestment of Proceeds

30. Proactive Countertrade Strategy
Answering the following questions is suggested before entering into a countertrade agreement:
Is there a ready market for the goods bartered?
Is the quality of the goods offered consistent and acceptable?
Is an expert needed to handle the negotiations?
Is the contract price sufficient to cover the cost of barter and net the desired revenue?

31. Price Quotations
In quoting the price of goods for international sale, a contract may include specific elements affecting the price, such as credit, sales terms, and transportation
Price quotations must also specify the currency to be used, credit terms, and the type of documentation required
A quantity definition might be necessary because different countries use different units of measurement

32. Administered Pricing
Administered pricing is an attempt to establish prices for an entire market
Such prices may be arranged through the cooperation of competitors; through national, state, or local governments; or by international agreement.
The legality of administered pricing arrangements of various kinds differs from country to country and from time to time.
A country may condone price fixing for foreign markets but condemn it for the domestic market, for instance.

33. Cartels
A cartel exists when various companies producing similar products or services work together to control markets for the types of goods and services they produce

34. Diamond Cartel
De Beers is a diamond mining company that monopolizes the industry and hence can establish price cartels.
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35. Government-Influenced Pricing
Companies doing business in foreign countries encounter a number of different types of government price setting
To control prices, governments may establish margins, set prices and floors or ceilings, restrict price changes, compete in the market, grant subsidies, and act as a purchasing monopsony or selling monopoly

36. Getting Paid: Foreign Commercial Payments
Export letters of credit opened in favor of the seller by the buyer handle most American exports
Another important form of international commercial payment is bills of exchange drawn by sellers on foreign buyers
Cash places unpopular burdens on the customer and typically is used when credit is doubtful, when exchange restrictions within the country of destination are such that the return of funds from abroad may be delayed for an unreasonable period, cash in advance is used

37. Getting Paid: Foreign Commercial Payments
Sales on open accounts are not generally made in foreign trade except to customers of long standing with excellent credit reputations or to a subsidiary or branch of the exporter
Inconvertible currencies and cash-short customers can kill an international sale if the seller cannot offer long-term financing. Unless the company has large cash reserves to finance its customers, a deal may be lost. Forfaiting is a financing technique for such a situation

38. Exhibit 18.4: A Letter of Credit Transaction
Source: Based on “A Basic Guide to Exporting.” U.S. Department of Commerce, International Trade Administration, Washington, D.C.
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