1. 1 Introduction Sections: 1.The Nature of Work 2.Defining Work Systems 3.Types of Occupations 4.Productivity 5.Organization of the Book Chapter 1

2. 2 Historical Figures Related to Work الشخصيات التاريخية المتعلقة بالعمل  Industrial Revolution (1770’s)  James Watt  steam engine  Henry Maudslay  screw-cutting lathe  (Factories)  Machines started to replace workers  Produce more quickly and accurately  Specialization of labor  Use of large numbers of unskilled labors who works long hours for low pay (including women & children)

3. 3 Historical Figures Related to Work  Interchangeable parts manufacture  Eli Whitney (1765-1825)  produces 10000 muskets for the US government  Standard parts  Special tools, fixtures etc.  Unique products replaces custom-fabricate products  Mass production (assembly line)  Henry Ford (1863-1947)  Model T for less than $500 in 1916

4. 4 Historical Figures Related to Work  Scientific management (late 1800s)  Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915)  Father of scientific management  Frank (1868-1924) & Lillian Gilbreth (1878-1972)  Father (mother) of motion study  All works are composed of basic motion elements (therbligs)  There is one best method to perform a certain task.  Cheaper by the Dozen  Motion study (finding the best method to perform a task)  Time study to establish work standards for a job  Use of standards in industry  Labor incentives (bonus payments for higher outputs)  Use of data collection, record keeping, cost accounting  The objective is to improve the (labor) productivity

5. 5 Work  Is our primary means of livelihood  Serves an important economic function in the global world of commerce  Creates opportunities for social interactions and friendships  Provides the products and services that sustain and improve our standard of living

6. 6 The Nature of Work  Work is an activity in which one exerts physical and mental effort to accomplish a given task or perform a duty  Task or duty has some useful objective  Worker applies skills and knowledge for successful completion  The activity has commercial value  The worker is compensated

7. 7 Work (Physics Definition)  The displacement (distance) that an object moves in a certain direction multiplied by the force acting on the object in the same direction.   Units of measurement:  Newton-meters (N-m) in the International System of Units (metric system)  Foot-pounds (ft-lb) in U.S. customary units  Work is more than muscular applications.  Combination of physical and cognitive work.

8. 8 The Pyramidal Structure of Work  Work consists of tasks  Tasks consist of work elements  Work elements consist of basic motion elements

9. 9 Task  An amount of work that is assigned to a worker or for which a worker is responsible  Repetitive task – as in mass production  Time required = 30 seconds to several minutes  Non-repetitive task – performed periodically, infrequently, or only once  Time required usually much longer than for repetitive task

10. 10 Work Element  A series of work activities that are logically grouped together because they have a unified function in the task  Example: assembling a component to a base part using several nuts and bolts  Required time = six seconds or longer

11. 11 Basic Motion Elements  Actuations of the limbs and other body parts  Examples:  Reaching for an object  Grasping the object  Moving the object  Walking  Eye movement  A work element consists of multiple basic motion elements  Less than a second

12. 12 Pyramidal Structure of Work  Extended to a worker’s career

13. 13 Importance of Time  In many human activities, “time is of the essence” الوقت هو جوهر المسألة  In sports  In daily living  In business and industry  In work

14. 14 Importance of Time in Business and Industry  New product introduction  Product cost (reduced time means reduced labor costs)  Delivery time  Overnight delivery  Competitive bidding العطاءات التنافسية(proposals should be submitted by a specific date)  Production scheduling (being on time)

15. 15 Importance of Time in Work  Time is the most frequently used measure of work (not Newton-meter)  How many minutes or hours are required to perform a given task?  Most workers are paid by the time they work  Hourly wage rate  Salary  Time = Money  Workers must arrive at work on time  Otherwise his/her absence may handicap the rest of the team  Labor and staffing requirements computed in units of time  Aggeragate unit

16. 16 Work System Defined  As a physical entity, a work system is a system consisting of humans, information, and equipment designed to perform useful work  Results of the useful work contributes to the production of a product or delivery of a service

17. 17 Examples of A Work System Examples: 1.Worker operating a machine tool in a factory 2.An assembly line consists of a dozen of workers at seperate work stations along a moving conveyor 3.Parcel service agent driving a delivery truck to make customer deliveries 4.Designer working at a CAD workstation 5.A receptionist answering incoming phone calls

18. 18 Work System Defined  As a field of professional practice, work systems include: 1.Work methods - analysis and design of tasks and jobs involving human work activity  Operations analysis & methods engineering 2.Work measurement – analysis of a task to determine the time that should be allowed to perform the task  Time study  Product costs - Worker performance - Worker requirements  Standard time (How long it takes to accomplish a given work)  (Time = Money) 3.Work management – organizational and administrative functions that must be accomplished to achieve high productivity and effective supervision of workers  Organizing workers - Motivating workers - Evaluating jobs - Evaluating performances - Compensating workers (labor wages)

19. 19 Jobs and Occupations  Bureau of Labor Statistics of the U.S. Department of Labor identifies 821 occupations in its Standard Occupational Classification (SOC)  The SOC covers virtually every type of work performed for pay or profit in the United States  Occupations are organized into 23 major groups  Groups are established on the basis of type of work and/or the industry in which it is performed

20. 20 Comparisons: Industries and Workers  It is convinient to group occupations into the following four groups although there are more types of occupations 1.Production workers  Making products  Manufacturing, construction, agriculture 2.Logistics workers  Moving materials, products, people  Transportation, distribution, material handling 3.Service workers  Providing service, applying existing information knowledge, communicate  Banking, retail, government, health care 4.Knowledge workers  Creating new knowledge, solving problems, managing  Management, engineering, legal, consulting, education

21. 21 Comparisons: Worker Discretion Refers to the need to make responsible decisions and exercise judgment in carrying out duties of the position  Jobs that are highly standardized and routine require minimum worker discretion تقدير عاملِ  Typical for production and logistics workers  Jobs in which workers must adapt their behavior in response to variations in the work situation require high discretion  Typical for service and knowledge workers

22. 22 Comparison of Work Characteristics Physical activities Cognitive activities

23. 23 Relative Percentages of Occupations in the U.S. Workforce 1900-1998 TR 2007 28 26 54 46 In one century the proportions have reversed.

24. 24 Productivity  The level of output of a given process relative to the level of input (output/input)  Process can refer to  Individual production or service operations  Productivity is an important metric in work systems because Improving productivity means:  saving scarce natural and human made resources  worker compensation can be increased without increasing the costs of products and services they produce  Products and services at lower prices for consumers which improves standard of living

25. 25 Labor Productivity  The most common productivity measure is labor productivity, defined by the following ratio: LPR = where LPR = labor productivity ratio, WU = work units of output, LH = labor hours of input  The definition of output depends on the process under consideration  Steel industry : ton  Automobile industry: number of cars  Labor hour (aggregate unit)  Makes it possible to make comparisions accross different industries

26. 26 Labor Factor in Productivity  Labor itself does not contribute much to improving productivity  More important factors:  Capital - substitution of machines for human labor  For example, investing in an automated production m/c to replace a manually operated m/c  Technology - fundamental change in the way some activity or function is accomplished  It is more than using a m/c in place of a human worker  A technologically more developed m/c replaces the previous one.

27. 27 Examples of Technology Changes Horse-drawn carts Steam locomotive Manually operated milling machine DC-3 passenger airplane (1930s) Railroad trains Diesel locomotive Numerically controlled (NC) milling machine Boeing 747 passenger airplane (1980s)

28. 28 Increasing Productivity  Distinctions between capital improvements and technology improvements are often subtle غير ملحوظ  New technologies almost always require capital investments  Important to recognize important gains in productivity are more likely to be made  By the introduction of capital and technology in a work process  Than by attempting to get more work in less time out of the workers  For example, in construction industry, mortar in mixers pumped into molds rather than workers mixing by shovels

29. 29 Measuring Productivity  Not as easy as it seems because of the following problems:  Nonhomogeneous output units (Polo vs Golf)  Multiple input factors  Labor, capital, technology, materials, energy  Productivity comparisons are not easy for:  Price and cost changes due to economic forces and these effect the worth of the output  If prices decrease but costs increase productivity may be less meaningful  Product mix changes  Relative proportions of products that a company sells change over time

30. 30 Labor Productivity Index Measure that compares output/input ratio from one year to the next LPI = where LPI = labor productivity index, LPR t = labor productivity ratio for period t, and LPR b = labor productivity ratio for base period

31. 31 Example: Productivity Measurement  During the base year in a small steel mill مصنع صلب, 326,000 tons of steel were produced using 203,000 labor hours. In the next year, the output was 341,000 tons using 246,000 labor hours. Determine: (a)the labor productivity ratio for the base year, (b)the labor productivity ratio for the second year, and (c)the productivity index for the second year.

32. 32 Example: Solution (a)In the base year, LPR = 326,000/203,000=1.606 tons per labor hour (b) In the second year, LPR = 341,000/246,000=1.386 tons per labor hour (c) Productivity index for the second year LPI = 1.386 / 1.606 = 0.863  Comment: productivity went down in the second year.

33. 33 Productive Work Content A given task performed by a worker can be considered to consist of: 1.Basic productive work content  Theoretical minimum amount of work required to accomplish the task 2.Excess nonproductive activities  Extra physical and mental actions of worker  Do not add any value to the task  Do not facilitate the productive work content  Take time

34. 34 Excess Nonproductive Activities Can be classified into three categories:  Excess activities due to poor design of product or service  Excess activities caused by inefficient methods, poor workplace layout, and interruptions  Excessive activities cause by the human factor

35. 35 Allocation of Total Task Time

36. 36 Poor Design of Product or Service  Products with more parts than necessary, causing excess assembly time  Product proliferation تكاثر(more choices for the customer than necessary)  Frequent design changes  Quality standards too stringent صارم

37. 37 Inefficient Methods, Layout, Etc.  Inefficient layout that increases material handling activities  Inefficient workplace layout that increases hand, arm, and body motions  Methods that include unnecessary work elements that waste time  Long setup times in batch production  Frequent equipment breakdowns  Workers waiting for work

38. 38 The Human Factor  Absenteeism  Tardiness تأخير(Tar-di-ness)  Workers spending too much time on socializing  Workers deliberately بتعمد working slowly  Inadequate training of workers  Industrial accidents caused by human error  Hazardous materials that cause occupational illnesses الأمراض المهنية

39. 39 Organization of the Book

40. 40 Tentative Course Schedule TopicTextbook chapter(s) Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Work Systems and How They Work Chapter 2: Manual Work and Worker-Machine Systems Chapter 3: Work Flow and Batch Processing Chapter 4: Manual Assembly Lines Chapter 6: Service Operations and Office Work 2, 3, 4, 6 Methods Engineering and Operations Analysis Chapter 8: Introduction Chapter 9: Charting and Diagramming Techniques for Operations Analysis 8, 9 Chapter 10: Motion Study and Work Design 10 Time Study and Work Measurement Chapter 12: Introduction to Ergonomics and Human Factors Chapter 13: Direct Time Study Chapter 14: Predetermined Motion Time Systems Chapter 17: Work Sampling 12, 13, 14, 17 Ergonomics and Human Factors in the Workplace Introduction Physical Ergonomics: Work Physiology and Anthropometry 22, 23 The Physical Work Environment 25 Compensation Systems 30 Job Evaluation and Performance Appraisal (Time permitting) 29