2. Development of EoS for Vapours & Gases P M V Subbarao Professor Mechanical Engineering Department I I T Delhi Models for Highly Bountiful Phase…..…..

3. Behaviour of Vapour  = interatomic potential, Joules. r = separation of molecules, nm (mean Free path). r = equivalent “hard sphere” radius of molecule (overlap of electron clouds). At high T, high p, collisions in the repulsive part of  – positive deviations from constancy. At low T, moderate p, collisions in the attractive portion of  – negative deviations from constancy.

4. P – v- T Relation Greatest need for EoS of saturated and superheated steam. R and a are constants. The is called as Rankine’s Equation of state, 1849. The specific volume of A vapour: v = f (p,T)

5. P – v- T Relation Callender’s Characteristic Equation for saturated and superheated vapours. R and b are constants. c is a function of temperature and it is called as co- aggregation volume. The specific volume of A vapour: v = f (p,T)

6. Pressure Volume Diagram

7. Van der Waals EOS One of the oldest but most extensively used of the EOS of non ideal gases Any EOS model must reproduce graphs such as that of the previous a, b are the Van der Waals constants for the particular gas; for water: a = 0.5658 J-m 3 /mole 2 ; b = 3.049x10 -5 m 3 /mole,

8. JO H A N N E S D. V A N D E R W A A L S The equation of state for gases and liquids Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1910 I intend to discuss in sequence: (1) the broad outlines of my equation of state and how I arrived at it; (2) what my attitude was and still is to that equation; (3) how in the last four years I have sought to account for the discrepancies which remained between the experimental results and this equation; (4) how I have also sought to explain the behaviour of binary and ternary mixtures by means of the equation of state.

9. Van der Waals EOS a, b are the Van der Waals constants for the particular gas; for water: a = 0.5658 J-m 3 /mole 2 ; b = 3.049x10 -5 m 3 /mole,

10. Van der Waals Coefficients Gasa (Pa m 3 )B (m 3 /mol) Helium3.46 x 10 -3 23.71 x 10 -6 Neon2.12 x 10 -2 17.10 x 10 -6 Hydrogen2.45 x 10 -2 26.61 x 10 -6 Carbon dioxide3.96 x 10 -1 42.69 x 10 -6 Water vapor5.47 x 10 -1 30.52 x 10 -6

11. Van der Waals Isotherms

12. Isotherms of Real Gases

13. Improved Cubic Equations of State

14. The constants a, b, c, Ao, Bo varies with substance

16. Compressibility Factor The deviation from ideal gas behaviour can also be expressed by compressibility factor, Z. The ratio of volume of real gas, V real to the ideal volume of that gas, V perfect calculated by ideal gas equation is known as compressibility factor.

17. Compact description of non-ideality: the compressibility factor, Z  1 as p  0 (ideality) Z < 1 at low T, moderate p (point A) Z > 1 at high p, high T (point B)

18. Generalized Compressibility Chart Reduced Pressure p R = p/p c Reduced Temperature T R = T/T c

19. VdW EOS & Compressibility a represents the attractive part of the potential; with b = 0, the VdW EOS gives a smaller v for the same T than the ideal gas b represents the repulsive portion of the potential; with a = 0, the VdW EOS gives a larger v for the same T than the ideal gas The VdW EOS is easily expressed in the forms p(T,v) or T(p,v). For the v(T,p) form, or, equivalently, Z(p,T):

20. The ideal gas equation of state may be written several ways.

22. What More Happens at System Boundary during Change of State The Happenings Which are our Benefits!!!

23. Global Wind Patterns : The Simple Resource

24. The Ancient Green Method for Better Living Traditional Egyptian architecture in Ancient Egypt as demonstrated on the Pharonic house of Neb- Ammun, Egypt, 19th Dynasty, c.1300 BC. Persian: بادگیر‎ bâdgir: bâd "wind" + gir "catcher“ Arabic: ملقف ‎malqaf Eastern Arabia:بارجيل barjeel

25. An ancient Idea for Better Living Windcatcher (Bagdir)

26. Evolution of Wind Turbines Wind is a clean, safe, renewable form of energy. Although the use of wind power in sailing vessels appeared in antiquity, the widespread use of wind power for grinding grain and pumping water was delayed until –the 7th century in Persia, –the 12th century in England, and –the 15th century in Holland. 17th century, Leibniz proposed using windmills and waterwheels together to pump water from mines in the Harz Mountains. Dutch settlers brought Dutch mills to America in the 18th century. This led to the development of a multiblade wind turbine that was used to pump water for livestock. Wind turbines were used in Denmark in 1890 to generate electric power. Early in the 20th century American farms began to use wind turbines to drive electricity generators for charging storage batteries.

27. The Modern Green Idea for Better Living : Wind Power

28. What happens When there is a change in state? Any of these happenings is/are useful for engineering world? Does it consume any resource? How to recognize these Happenings? Thermal In-equilibrium Mechanical In-equilibrium Chemical In-equilibrium Any combinations of above. These are happenings or actions or path functions or interactions. Present only during a change of state. What action is work transfer? What action is Heat transfer? What action is Mass transfer? How to differentiate?

29. Mechanical Work Tranfer Work is a mechanical concept given by the expression: F is a force and s is a displacement Work is a scalar product Force components along the displacement vector only can do work Force components perpendicular to the displacement vector cannot do work. This relationship will be useful to find work required to raise a weight, to stretch a wire or to move a charged particle through a magnetic field.