1. Chapter 12 - The Cell Cycle

2. How did you develop from a single-celled zygote to a 300-trillion-celled organism?
How does the genetic information in a cell from your toe compare to the genetic information in a cell from your arm?

3. Cell Theory All living matter is composed of one or more cells.
The cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
All cells come from cells.
So how does cell divide?

4. Roles of Cell Division Reproduction Growth Repair
In all cases, cell division must distribute identical genetic material to two daughter cells.

5. Cell Division
An amoeba, a single celled Eukaryote, is dividing into two cells. Each new cell will be an individual organism (taken with a light microscope

6. Genome Genome – the sum total of an organism’s genetic material
A typical human cell has about 2m of DNA (250,000 x a cell’s diameter)!
Usually packaged into chromosomes for manageability.

9. Chromosomes Made of a DNA and protein complex called Chromatin.
During cell division, the chromatin becomes highly condensed into the chromosomes.
Why condense? – You have to separate a bowl of pasta into two plates. What’

10. Chromosomes - Structure
At cell division, each chromosome has been duplicated.
The duplicated chromosome consists of two sister chromatids.

12. Centromere
The point where two sister chromatids are connected.

13. Goal of cell division
To split the sister chromatids and give one to each new cell.

14. Draw out mitosis with 1 chromosome starting before DNA replication and then the resulting daughter cells.

15. Cell Cycle - parts
1. Interphase - (90% of cycle) - when the cell grows and duplicates the chromosomes. 2. Mitotic Phase (M) - when the chromosomes are split into separate cells.

17. Interphase
Light microscope. Lung cells from a newt. Chromosomes are blue, microtubules green, intermediate filaments red.

18. Interphase - parts
G1 (Gap 1) - Cell grows and carries out regular biochemical functions.
S – synthesis - When the DNA is replicated or synthesized. Chromosomes are replicated.
G2 – (Gap 2)- Cell completes preparations for division.

20. Mitotic Phase - parts
1. Mitosis - division of replicated chromosomes. 2. Cytokinesis - division of the cell’s cytoplasm.

21. Mitosis - Purpose To divide the 2 copies of the DNA equally.
To separate the sister chromatids into separate cells.

22. Mitosis Steps
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
You DO NOT need to know what happens in each stage. You do need to know the logic of the sequence of events

23. The Mitotic Spindle
Mitotic Spindle: network of microtubules and proteins; assembles during prophase
Centrosome (animal cell): region that organizes microtubules; (where they start growing)
Interphase: single centrosome replicates
Prophase and prometaphase: centrosomes move apart and microtubles begin growing out of them
Aster: radial array of short microtubules (centrosomes at each pole)
SPINDLE = centrosomes, spindle microtubules, and asters

24. What are microtubules? Part of cytoskeleton Hollow tubes of tubulin
Function:
Maintain cell shape
Cell motility
Cell division
Organelle Movement

25. Prophase

26. Prophase Nucleoli disappear. Chromatin condenses into the chromosomes.
Centrioles separate to opposite ends of the cell.
Mitotic spindle begins to form.

27. Prometaphase

28. Prometaphase Nuclear envelope dissolves.
Spindle fibers join with the kinetochore of the centromeres.

29. Metaphase

30. Metaphase Centrioles now at opposite ends of the cell.
Chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate.
Spindle apparatus fully developed.

31. Anaphase

32. Anaphase
Centromeres break and the duplicated chromosomes are pulled away from each other toward opposite ends of the cell.
Cell elongates; poles move slightly further apart.

33. Kinetochores
Specialized regions of the centromeres where spindle microtubules attach.

34. Kinetochores Structure on the chromosome
Appear to “ratchet” the chromosome down the spindle fiber microtubule with a motor protein.
Microtubules dissolve behind the kinetochore.

35. Where does the microtubule depolymerize
Where does the microtubule depolymerize? At the pole of the cell or at the chromosomes? They labelled the microtubules with a yellow die, then removed the marking with a laser at a specific region of the spindle. As the chromosomes moved poleward, the microtubule segments on the kinetochore side of the mark shortened, while those on the spindle pole side stayed the same length. This showed that the spindle is shortened at the chromosome end, not at the kinetochore end.

36. Telophase

37. Telophase Chromosomes uncoil back to chromatin.
Nuclear envelope reforms.
Nucleoli reappear.
Spindle fibers disappear.
Cytokinesis usually starts.

38. Cytokinesis

39. Cytokinesis - Animal Cleavage furrow forms.
Microfilaments contracts and divides the cytoplasm into two parts.

40. Cytokinesis - Plants Cell plate develops from Golgi vesicles.
New cell wall developed around the cell plate.

41. Cell Plate

42. Cell Division

43. Animal Cell - Mitosis

44. Plant Cell - Mitosis

46. Regulation of Cell Division
Must be controlled.
Rate of cell division depends on the cell type.
Ex - skin: frequently
liver - as needed
brain - rarely or never

47. Checkpoints A critical control point in the cell cycle.
Several are known.
Cells must receive a “go-ahead” signal before proceeding to the next phase.

48. G1 Checkpoint Also called the “restriction point” in mammalian cells.
Places cells in a non-dividing phase called the Go phase.
Most important checkpoint according to some.

49. GO

50. Go Phase Non-dividing state. Most cells are in this state.
Some cells can be reactivated back into M phase from the Go phase.

51. Protein Kinase Checkpoint - G2
Uses protein kinases to signal “go-ahead” for the G2 phase.
Activated by a protein complex whose concentration changes over the cell cycle.

53. MPF M-phase Promoting Factor.
Protein complex required for a cell to progress from G2 to Mitosis.
Role of MPF - to trigger a chain of protein kinase activations.

54. Active MPF has:
1. Cdk 2. Cyclin

55. CDK
Protein Kinase (enzyme that adds phosphate to a molecule to energize it).
Amount remains constant during cycle.
Inactive unless bound with cyclin.

57. Cyclin Protein whose concentration builds up over G1, S and G2.
When enough cyclin is present, active MPF is formed.

59. Active MPF Triggers Mitosis.
Activates a cyclin-degrading enzyme, which lowers the amount of cyclin in the cell.
Result - no active MPF to trigger another mitosis until the cycle is repeated.

61. Growth Factors External signals that affect mitosis. Examples: PDGF
Density-dependent inhibition
Anchorage dependence

62. PDGF Platelet-Derived Growth Factor.
Growth Factor – protein released by cells that stimulate other cells to divide (over 50 different kinds)
Platelets release this protein when an injury occurs
Stimulates cell division to heal injuries.

64. Density-Dependent Inhibition
The number of cells in an area force competition for nutrients, space, and growth factors .

65. Density-Dependent Inhibition
When density is high - no cell division.
When density is low - cells divide.
Mechanism: surface protein on a cell comes in contact with its counterpart, triggering a growth-inhibiting signal to both cells

67. Anchorage Dependence
Inhibition of cell division unless the cell is attached to a substratum (extracellular matrix of a tissue or the inside of a culture jar)
Prevents cells from dividing and floating off in the body.

68. Apoptosis Programmed cell death Uses cell signaling pathways
DNA is chopped up
Cell shrinks and becomes lobed (blebbing)
Pieces are digested by specialized scavenger cells

69. WBC before and after
Blebs forming on white blood cell

70. Embryonic mouse paw. Apoptosis eliminates the cells in the interdigital regions, forming the digits. The cells undergoing apoptosis are bright yellow.

71. Apoptosis Balance between signals for “live” or “die”
Triggered by mitochondria damage, neighbor cells, internal signals
Involved with Parkinson’s Alzheimer’s, Cancer

73. Apoptosis video

74. Cancer Cells Do not stop dividing.
The control mechanisms for cell division have failed.

76. Evolution of Mitosis

77. Comment Regulation of cell division is a balance between:
Mitosis - making new cells.
Apoptosis - cell suicide or death
Cancer can result if either process doesn’t work.

78. Summary Know the phases and steps of the cell cycle.
Be able to discuss the “regulation” of the cell cycle.