1. MACROMECHANICS
Ahmet Erkliğ

2. Objectives
Review definitions of stress, strain, elastic moduli, and strain energy.
Develop stress–strain relationships for different types of materials.
Develop stress–strain relationships for a unidirectional / bidirectional lamina.
Find the engineering constants of a unidirectional/bidirectional lamina in terms of the stiffness and compliance parameters of the lamina.
Develop stress–strain relationships, elastic moduli, strengths, and thermal and moisture expansion coefficients of an angle ply based on those of a unidirectional/bidirectional lamina and the angle of the ply.

3. Lamina and Laminate
A lamina is a thin layer of a composite material. A laminate is constructed by stacking a number of such lamina in the direction of the lamina thickness
The design and analysis of such laminated structures demands knowledge of the stresses and strains in the laminate. Also, design
tools, such as failure theories, stiffness models, and optimization algorithms, need the values of these laminate stresses and strains.
However, the building blocks of a laminate are single lamina, so understanding the mechanical analysis of a lamina precedes understanding that
of a laminate. A lamina is unlike an isotropic homogeneous material.

4. Review of Definitions
Stress There are thus six independent stresses. The stresses σx , σy , and σz are normal to the surfaces of the cuboid and the stresses τyz , τzx , and τxy are along the surfaces of the cuboid.

5. Review of Definitions
Strain Under loads, the lengths of the sides of the infinitesimal cuboid change. The faces of the cube also get distorted. The change in length corresponds to a normal strain and the distortion corresponds to the shearing strain.

6. Review of Definitions
Elastic Moduli for isotropic homogeneous material; The compliance matrix [S]

7. Review of Definitions
Elastic Moduli for isotropic homogeneous material; The stiffness matrix [C]

8. Review of Definitions
Strain Energy; Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. In solid, deformable, elastic bodies under loads, the work done by external loads is stored as recoverable strain energy.

9. Hooke’s Law for Different Types of Materials
where the 6 × 6 [C] matrix is called the stiffness matrix. The stiffness matrix has 36 constants.
Due to the symmetry of the stiffness matrix [C], 36 constants are reduced to 21 independent constants

10. compliance matrix [S]

11. Anisotropic Material
The material that has 21 independent elastic constants at a point is called an anisotropic material.

12. Monoclinic Material
If, in one plane of material symmetry, for example, direction 3 is normal to the plane of material symmetry, then the stiffness matrix reduces to 13 independent constants.

13. Orthotropic Material (Orthogonally Anisotropic)/Specially Orthotropic
If a material has three mutually perpendicular planes of material symmetry, then the stiffness matrix has 9 independent elastic constants (E1, E2, E3, G12, G13, G23, ν12, ν13, ν23)

14. Orthotropic Material

15. Orthotropic Material

16. Transversely Isotropic Material
Consider a plane of material isotropy in one of the planes of an orthotropic body. If direction 1 is normal to that plane (2–3) of isotropy, then the stiffness matrix is 4 independent constants

17. Isotropic Material
If all planes in an orthotropic body are identical, it is an isotropic material; then, the stiffness matrix is 2 independent constants (E, ν)

18. Summary Anisotropic: 21 Monoclinic: 13 Orthotropic: 9
Transversely isotropic: 5
Isotropic: 2 independent elastic constants

19. Plane Stress Assumption
A thin plate is a prismatic member having a small thickness and there are no out-of-plane loads, it can be considered to be under plane stress. If the upper and lower surfaces of the plate are free from external loads, then σ3 = 0, τ31 = 0, and τ23 = 0.

21. E1 = longitudinal Young’s modulus (in direction 1) E2 = transverse Young’s modulus (in direction 2) ν12 = major Poisson’s ratio, where the general Poisson’s ratio, νij is defined as the ratio of the negative of the normal strain in direction j to the normal strain in direction i, when the only normal load is applied in direction i G 12 = in-plane shear modulus (in plane 1–2)

22. Coefficients of Compliance and Stiffness Matrices

23. Hooke’s Law for a 2D Angle Lamina
Transverse direction
Longitudinal direction
Generally, a laminate does not consist only of unidirectional laminae because
of their low stiffness and strength properties in the transverse direction.
Therefore, in most laminates, some laminae are placed at an angle. It is thus
necessary to develop the stress–strain relationship for an angle lamina.
Global axes, x, y
Local and global axes of an angle lamina

24. Global and Local Stresses
[T] is called the transformation matrix

25. Global and Local Stresses
[R] is the Reuter matrix

26. Global and Local Stresses

27. Reduced Stiffness Matrix

28. Global and Local Stresses
Inverting stress equation
Transformed reduced compliance matrix

29. Global and Local Stresses

30. Example
Find the following for a 60° angle lamina of graphite/epoxy. Use the properties of unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina from Table 2.1.
Transformed compliance matrix
Transformed reduced stiffness matrix
Global strains
Local strains
Local stresses
Principal stresses
Maximum shear stress
Principal strains
Maximum shear strain

31. Solution
The compliance matrix elements are

32. Transformed compliance matrix elements are

33. Transformed reduced stiffness matrix elements are

34. 3. The global strains in the x–y plane are given by Equation (2.105)

38. The value of the angle at which the maximum normal stresses occur is

43. 9. The maximum shearing strain is given by

45. Engineering Constants of an Angle Lamina
The engineering constants for a unidirectional lamina were related to the compliance and stiffness matrices
1. For finding the engineering elastic moduli in direction x (Figure 2.23a), apply
The elastic moduli in direction x is defined as
Then

46. In an angle lamina, unlike in a unidirectional lamina, interaction also occurs between the shear strain and the normal stresses. This is called shear coupling. The shear coupling term that relates the normal stress in the x-direction to the shear strain is denoted by mx and is defined as
Note that mx is a nondimensional parameter like the Poisson’s ratio.

47. 2. Similarly, by applying stresses

48. 3. Also, by applying the stresses

49. Strain-Stress Equation of an Angle Lamina

50. Engineering Constants of an Angle Lamina

52. Invariant Form of Stiffness Matrix
The main advantage of writing the equations in this form is that one can easily examine the effect of the lamina angle on the reduced stiffness matrix elements.

53. Invariant Form of Stiffness Matrix
The terms U1 , U2 , U3 , and U4 are the four invariants and are combinations of the Qij , which are invariants as well.

54. Invariant Form of Compliance Matrix

55. Invariant Form of Compliance Matrix
The terms V1 , V2 , V3 , and V4 are invariants and are combinations of Sij