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Unit 1- Personality, Arousal and Anxiety
Personality Types Personality Testing Achievement Motivation Theories of Arousal Arousal and Performance
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Contents Personality Types Achievement Motivation Trait Theory
Interactionalist Theory Hollander’s Model Trait V Interactionalist Eysenck’s Model Narrow Band Theory Social Learning Personality Testing Observations, Questionnaires and Survey Profile of Mood States (POMS) Encouraging NACH behaviour Achievement Motivation Characteristics of NACH and NAF Encouraging NACH behaviour Arousal Cognitive and Somatic Arousal Drive Theory Inverted U Hypothesis Optimal Arousal Catastrophe Theory Peak Flow experience Zone of Optimal Functioning
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Trait theory Trait theory was based on 3 assumptions…
Tendency to behave is stable and unchanging Tendency to behave is consistent in all different situations Each person has a unique combination of dispositions Criticism Doesn’t explain why our behaviour may change in different situations Social learning theory- learn by copying others (significant others, friends etc.)
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Interactionalist theory
Interactionalist theorists built on the work by the Trait theorists They suggested that our behaviour depends upon what traits we have inherited and how these are influenced by our environment. So we can split personality up into… Traits (Internal) Environment (external) This suggests that our behaviour should be predictable in certain environments However Behaviour may be different as the environment changes
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Role related behaviours
Hollander’s Model Psychological Core Typical responses Role related behaviours Psychological Core Inner core of beliefs, values and attitudes Fairly permanent, unlikely to change Typical responses Responses to a situation show our core Different core will lead to different responses Role-related behaviour Shows our actual responses to a certain situation Most changeable aspect of personality Behaviour will vary depending on How we feel? The situation we are in? Social environment
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Trait V Interactionalist
We inherit traits that define our personality, greater emphasis is place on the inner core. How we behave depends on both our inner core and the environment which we are put it. James Anderson Key difference- Emphasis placed upon the effect the environment has on your chosen behaviour Federer?
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Eysenck’s Model Personality lies on two continua…
Extroversion Introversion Stability Neurosis Extrovert Introvert Like social situations Outgoing Likes an audience Become bored easily. (RAS) Reticular activated system- not easily stimulated Dislikes Social situations Reserved Dislikes an audience Easily over aroused Stable Neurotic Reliable Consistent Calm Unpredictable Restless Volatile
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Narrow Band Theory Based on Trait theory as it suggests personality is innate… Type A Type B High stress/arousal levels Low stress/arousal levels Competitive Not concerned with competition Lacks tolerance Patient Needs to be in control of task Doesn’t need to be in control of task Fast worker Works slowly
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Social Learning Interactionalist approach as it suggests personality is not innate but learned form our experiences… Behaviour changes according to situation Therefore cannot be predicted Significant others Parents, peers, coaches, teachers and role models in media Socialisation Accepting and conforming to the ‘norms’ Reinforcement If appropriate behaviour is praised more likely to repeat Also works with seeing others praised
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3 main formats… Interviews Observations Questionnaires
Personality testing 3 main formats… Interviews Observations Questionnaires Tests lack Reliability… (results may not be consistent) May change their behaviour if the know they are being watched May be inhibited by wearing a Heart rate monitor Performers may not give truthful answers Interpreting behaviour during observations is largely subjective Tests also lack Validity… (Results may not give any useful information) How people act playing sport may not be how they are day-to-day Little evidence to support idea of ‘sporting’ personality
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Profile of Mood States (POMS)
Some research has illustrated a difference between more and less successful sportsman Based on mood states and ability to cope rather than personality traits Measures the following… Tension, Depression, Anger, Vigour, Fatigue, Confusion Iceberg Profile Successful athletes tend to score… Higher on anger and vigour Lower on tension, depression, fatigue and confusion Can also show when overtraining is happening in elite performers- reduced Vigour Chicken and egg scenario? Elite become Iceberg or Iceberg become Elite?
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Achievement Motivation
Competitiveness is a key factor for distinguishing sport from recreation It has been suggested that in demanding situations performers exhibit either… A Need to Achieve (NACH) Or A Need to avoid Failure (NAF) This displays the level of competitiveness shown by an individual
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Characteristics of NACH and NAF
NACH Characteristic NAF Characteristics Shows ‘approach’ behaviour Shows ‘avoidance’ behaviour Seeks out challenges Avoids challenge- prefers very easy or very hard tasks (guaranteed success or failure) Is concerned with standards Avoids situations where success is unknown and could be evaluated Enjoys being evaluated Performs worse while being evaluated Not afraid to fail Tends to be preoccupied with failure Attributes performance to internal factors Attributes performance to external factors High task persistence Lacks task persistence Values feedback form others Doesn’t value feedback
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Encouraging NACH behaviour
Avoidance behaviour arises due to… Lack of self confidence High anxiety Learned helplessness Attributing failure internally To generate NACH Approach behaviour… Ensure success by setting achievable process goals Steadily increase complexity of task Raise confidence by giving positive re-inforcement Highlight successful role-models with comparable characteristics Attribute internally for success- Ability or Effort
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Cognitive and Somatic arousal
Defined as a state of heightened psychological activity As a performer you will have experienced various levels of arousal and recognise both the physical (Somatic) and mental (Cognitive) signs. Cognitive arousal Somatic arousal Increased focus and concentration Heightened awareness of cues in environment Narrowing of attention Decreased reaction time (To a point) However if over arousal occurs it can lead to:- Anxiety and apprehension Tension Negative self-talk Difficulties sleeping Inability to concentrate Increased heart rate Increased breathing rate Sweating Headache Cold, clammy hands Dry mouth Dazed look in eyes Feeling on nausea Increased muscle tension Butterflies in stomach Constant need to urinate
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Drive Theory (Hull, 1943) Ronaldo
Proposed a linear relationship between arousal and performance As arousal increases so will quality of performance Higher levels of arousal would intensify the dominant response For Elite performers this is likely to be correct response For beginners likely to be incorrect response Spence and Spence (1968) adapted it using an equation:- Performance = Habit strength x drive Now considered an inadequate explanation When arousal reaches a high enough point performance will not improve Ronaldo
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Inverted U Hypothesis (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908)
Suggests that performance will increase with arousal to an optimum point. However if you go beyond that point then performance will decrease From observations this seems to fit very well, however, it is too simplistic Does it apply equally to the different phases of learning? Does it apply to all sports performance in the same way?
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Optimal Arousal Phase of Learning
Beginners find it more difficult to cope with arousal Less habitual (Similar to Drive theory) Need to give more attention to the skill itself and arousal levels may take concentration away Rely heavily on environmental cues, may miss what is unexpected Nature of the Skill Can vary according to the skill being performed Gross skills benefit from higher levels of arousal then fine skills Shot Putt compared to Archery Varies within a sport dependant upon role Rugby forwards compared to backs Lion's team talk Performance Arousal Cognitive Associative Autonomous Performance Arousal Fine/ Complex Gross/ Simple
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Catastrophe theory A D C B Performance Arousal The worst over ever?
Based upon Inverted U theory but differs in what happens during over arousal… Inverted U suggests gradual decline Catastrophe theory suggests much faster and more dramatic decline More of a model than a theory as it attempts to predict human behaviour rather than explain it A- Performer reaches Optimum level of arousal High cognitive anxiety but low Somatic arousal B- Performer has sudden reduction in performance High cognitive and High Somatic arousal C- Possible that performance will continue to deteriorate D- Performer gradually regains control as arousal levels decrease Performance Arousal A B C D The worst over ever?
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Positive Psychological state, achieved by performers when…
Peak Flow Experience Positive Psychological state, achieved by performers when… The level of challenge matches their skill They have a clear goal They have correct attentional style They have a positive attitude They have control of their arousals levels To reach the “Zone” performers should be given a realistic yet challenging Challenge High Challenge Low Skill Level Low Skill Level High Anxiety Apathy Boredom PEAK FLOW
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Zone of Optimal Functioning (ZOF)
The Zone (ZOF) is a mental state which performers experience when everything is perfect In the Zone Out of Zone Performer A- Low ZOF Performer B- Moderate ZOF Performer C- High ZOF Level of Arousal Characteristics of the ZOF… Performing at optimal arousal Feeling completely calm Fully concentrating on the task Feeling completely confident (Success inevitable) Performing smoothly and efficiently Performers will often have limited memory of event- Autopilot
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