1. Rites of Passage: Physical and Cognitive development in adolescence
Chapter 8

2. Pubertal changes Learning Objectives
What physical changes occur in adolescence that mark the transition to a mature adult?
What factors cause the physical changes associated with puberty?
How do physical changes affect adolescent’s psychological development?

3. Signs of physical maturatation
Puberty consists of two changes that mark the change from childhood to young adulthood
-Dramatic increases in height, weight, and
body fat distribution
-Changes in the reproductive organs that mark sexual maturity, as well as secondary sexual characteristics such as body and facial hair, and growth of the breasts

4. Physical Growth Adolescence growth spurt
-Females gain as much as pounds in a
year
-begin the growth spurt about 2 years before
boys
-start at about age 11 and reach a mature
stature at 15
-Males gain around pounds a year
-start at about 13 and reach a mature stature at
about 17

5. Physical Growth
Hands, feet, and head grow followed by arms and legs, then trunk and shoulders last
Bodies are out of proportion briefly
Bones become denser
Muscle fibers thicker and denser causing increase in strength
Body fat increases more in girls
Heart and lung capacity increases more in boys

6. Physical Growth Brain is about 95%b of adult size
Myelination almost complete allowing for faster processing
Synaptic pruning almost complete
L:imbic system reaches maturity (reward, pleasure, emotion)
Amugdala more active than in adult brain
Frontal cortex (control of behavior) is still developing, allows risky behavior

8. Brain growth in adolescence
By the beginning of adolescence the brain is 95% of adult size and weight
Myelination and synaptic pruning are nearly complete

9. Sexual Maturation Primary sex characteristics
-organs of reproduction, ovaries, uterus, vagina, testes, scrotum, penis
Secondary sex characteristics
-physical signs of maturity that are not
directly linked to reproduction, changes in voice and skin
-girls
-breasts and pelvis width
-boys
- facial hair and broadening of the shoulders

10. Sexual Maturation Menarche -onset of menstruation in girls
-first menstrual cycles are usually irregular
and without ovulation
Spermarche
-first spontaneous ejaculation of sperm
containing fluid
-first ejaculation usually contain few sperm
-sufficient sperm to fertilize an egg may take
months or years to develop

11. Mechanisms of Maturation
Hypothalamus
-releases hormones to the pituitary gland
triggering growth hormones
Pituitary gland
-stimulates other glands to produce estrogen
in girls and testosterone in boys
Timing of puberty
-genetically regulated
-affected by health and nutrition
-Menarche occurs earlier in countries where nutrition
and health care are better

12. Social Influences on Puberty
Stress, depression – early menarche
Harsh punishment as children- early menarche
Paternal investment theory –
Fathers invested in adolescent – later menarche
Uninvolsed, abscent fathers – early menarche
Psychologically distant or mentally ill fathers compounds
the early menarche effect

13. Psychological impact of puberty
Body image
-Teenagers are very attentive to physical
changes, which take place very rapidly and
are dramatic
-Girls are more critical of their appearance
and are likely to be dissatisfied.
-Boys little influenced by peers but unhappy when do not have strong masculine body

14. Response to Menarche and Spermarche
Girls
-prepared by mothers
-tend to be moderately please
-irritated by the messiness
-share the news with their mothers and then
friends
-celebrated in other cultures
Boys
-less documented reactions
-usually more pleased if they know about it
beforehand
-rarely tell parents and friends

15. Moodiness Moodiness -increase in hormone levels are associated
with greater irritability and impulsivity, but correlations are small
-more associated with activities
-recreational activities associated with good
mood
-adult regulated activities with a negative

16. Rate of Maturation
Rate of maturation may have a significant consequence for adolescents
Early maturation usually benefits boys, but not girls
-girls had more negative feelings , lack self confidence, less popular, behavior problems, smoke, and drink, especially if impoverished and conflict in the home, may be pressured into sex, lower paying jobs
-boys tend to have more positive feelings when mature “on time”. In some studies being early or late can be stressful

17. Health Learning Objectives
What are the elements of a healthy diet for adolescents? Why do some adolescents suffer from eating disorders?
Do adolescents get enough exercise? What are the pros and cons of participating in sports in high school?
What are common obstacles to healthy growth in adolescents?

18. Nutrition
Teenagers need high caloric intake because of high growth and metabolism needs
-Girls need approximately 2200 calories per
day
-Boys need around 2700 calories daily
Most U.S. teens consume sufficient calories but not balanced, nutritional meals, may be low on iron causing listlessness and calcium affecting bone maturation
-in the U.S. 1 of every 7 children is overweight by body mass index (ratio of wt to ht)
-heredity plays a role, may set basal metabolic rate (speed at which body consumes calories), wt is related to that of parents
Environment plays a role, TV, parents habits

19. Obese youths can lose weight
Successful programs focus on eating habits and sedentary behavior
Success is rooted in monitoring their eating, exercise, and sedentary behavior. Short term goals with rewards are set in each area
Parents are trained to help set realistic goals and to use behavioral principles in meeting them. Monitor their lifestyle for enabling behaviors.
Make healthy foods available and affordable

20. Anorexia and bulimia Anorexia
-disorder marked by an irrational fear of being
overweight
-have a distorted body image
-15% of adolescents with anorexia die
Bulimia
-binge eating and purging by vomiting or with
laxatives
-may occur as many as 30 times per week
-sometimes cannot stop eating

21. Anorexia and bulimia Causes:
Heredity – genes regulating anxiety and food intake
Psychological factors, hx. of picky eaters, pica, negative self esteem, mood or anxiety disorders
* Being overly concerned with one’s body wt. and a history of dieting.
Pressure of peers and media
Overprotective patents risk factor for anorexia
Childhood obesity risk factor for bulimia
Sports that emphasize being thin

22. Physical fitness Adolescence rarely get enough exercise
Organized sports
-more boys participate then girls
-enhances self-esteem and initiative
-help learn cooperation and teamwork
Steroid usage
-used to enhance performance in sports
-enhance muscle size, strength and recovery
from injury
-5-10% of boys use steroids
-Damages lever, reproductive organs, skeleton cardiovascular, mood swings, aggression,depression
Regular exercise means 30 minutes three times a week with adolescence heart rate about 140/min.

23. Threats to adolescents well being
1 of 1000 U.S. adolescents dies yearly
-most are results of auto accidents and
firearms
-decisions to engage in higher risk behavior
Adolescents and adults reason out risk similarly
-the weight given to specific risks may very
greatly
-adolescents may give greater weight to the
social consequences of choices
-illusions of invulnerability
Adolescents take risks adults find unacceptable

25. Information Processing During Adolescence
Learning Objectives
How do working memory and processing speed change in adolescence?
How do increases in content knowledge, strategies, and metacognition skill influence adolescent cognition?
What changes in problem solving and reasoning take place in adolescence?

26. How does information processing improve in adolescence?
For information-processing theorists, adolescence is not a separate stage
-rapidly changing transition from childhood
cognition to young adulthood
-changes do take place in certain areas of
cognitive development
Working memory same capacity as adults
Better able to store info for ongoing
processing
Processing faster ie shorter response
time
Myelination allows faster response and
cognitive processing

27. Working Memory and Processing Speed
Speed of cognitive processing and memory capacity both achieve adult levels during adolescence
Adolescents process information very efficiently

28. Content knowledge
During adolescence, children become as knowledgeable as adults in certain domains
This enhances performance in some areas and assists them in understanding and learning new areas

29. Strategies and Metacognitive skills
Adolescents become more skilled at recognizing and developing strategies for specific tasks and for monitoring the strategy for their effectiveness
They may develop master plans for studying in school

30. Limits on information processing
Information processing ability increases during adolescence
-they may not use these abilities effectively
-choices may play a role in effective
processing
-less mature cognitive processing may be
used because it is easier

31. Problem Solving and Reasoning
Adolescents more likely to use analysis that heuristics to solve problems
Adolescents can discover flaws in reasoning
Use reasoning skills selectively based on their beliefs

32. Reasoning and Moral issues
Learning Objectives
How do adolescents reason about moral issues?
Is moral reasoning similar in all cultures?
How do concern for justice and caring for other people contribute to moral reasoning?
What factors help promote more sophisticated reasoning about moral issues?

33. Kohlberg’s Theory
In response to a story of a moral dilemma, children pass through these stages:
-Preconventional Level
-moral reasoning is based on an external
force, reward and punishment
-obedience orientation is believing that
authority figures know what is right and wrong
-instrumental orientation consists of looking out
for their own needs

34. Kohlberg’s Theory Conventional Level
-look to society’s norms for moral guidance
-Interpersonal norm stage
-children are guided by winning the
approval of others
-Social system morality stage
-adolescents believe that social roles,
expectations, and laws exist to maintain order and are for the good of all people

35. Kohlberg’s Theory Postconventional Level
-morals are based on a personal moral code
-Social contract stage
-laws and expectations are good as long they
benefit all group members
-Universal ethical principles stage
-people choose ethical principles such as
justice, compassion, and equality, have a personal moral system.

36. Support for Kohlberg’s Theory
Kohlberg wrote that people progress through the stages in only the order listed
Longitudinal studies show that people do not skip stages and do not regress
Research demonstrates links between levels of moral reasoning and moral action
-Higher levels are associated with causes
following beliefs. Lower levels are associated
with delinquency

37. Cultural Difference in Moral Reasoning
Kohlberg theory stresses higher level’s emphasis on individual rights and justice, reflecting western Judeo-Christian values
The principle reflected in other cultures may be different and affect resolutions of moral dilemmas
Eastern culture puts caring for others and familial obligations above individual rights

38. Beyond Kohlberg’s Theory Carol Gilligan’s Theory
Gilligan argues that Kohlberg’s emphasis on justice is more applicable to men than women, even in western cultures
-Primary emphasis for women is caring and
alleviation of social and global problems
-Stage One
-preoccupation with one’s own needs
-Stage Two
-caring for others
-stage Three
-emphasis of caring in all human relationships and
denunciation of violence/exploitation

39. Promoting Moral reasoning
Children advance through contact with those in higher stages
Kohlberg found that discussion of morality can help children see short comings of moral reasoning
Religion affects moral reasoning placing emphasis on caring for others
Discussion is best way to help
Children think about moral
Issues in more mature ways