1. 7-1 Learning and Conditioning Chapter 7

2. 7-2 Chapter Outline Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning Classical Conditioning in Real LifeClassical Conditioning in Real Life Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning Operant Conditioning in Real LifeOperant Conditioning in Real Life

3. Basics of Learning Behaviourism:Behaviourism: –Approach that emphasizes the study of observable behaviour and the role of the environment as a determinant of behaviour Conditioning:Conditioning: –Basic kind of learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and the organism’s responses 7-3

4. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning:Classical conditioning: – process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response 7-4

5. Unconditioned stimulus (US)Unconditioned stimulus (US) –A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning (e.g., food) Unconditioned response (UR)Unconditioned response (UR) –Reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of stimulus in the absence of learning (e.g., salivation) learning (e.g., salivation) 7-5 Classical Conditioning

6. Neutral stimulusNeutral stimulus –Stimulus that does not yet produce a response –Regularly paired with unconditioned stimulus unconditioned stimulus –Neutral stimulus becomes “conditioned” to elicit a response response 7-6 Classical Conditioning

7. Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned stimulus (CS) –An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., bell) 7-7 Conditioned response (CR)Conditioned response (CR) –A response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; occurs after the CS is associated with the US (e.g., salivation)

8. Copyright © 2013 Pearson Canada Classical Conditioning Beyond salivating, many automatic and involuntary responses have been classically conditionedBeyond salivating, many automatic and involuntary responses have been classically conditioned Heart beat, blood pressure, reflexive movements, blinking…Heart beat, blood pressure, reflexive movements, blinking… 7-8

9. What is Actually Learned? Classical conditioning is effective when stimulus to be conditioned is presented before the unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for the unconditioned stimulus To become a CS, a neutral stimulus must reliably predict the US 7-9

10. Classical Conditioning in Real Life Learning to Like:Learning to Like: –Classical conditioning involved in our positive emotional responses to objects, people, symbols, events, & places 7-10

11. Classical Conditioning in Real Life Consumer PsychologyConsumer Psychology associating an item with something pleasant induces people to like the item itself associating an item with something pleasant induces people to like the item itself 7-11

12. Copyright © 2013 Pearson Canada Classical Conditioning in Real Life AdvertisingAdvertising Industries and corporations pair their products with music, celebrities etc.Industries and corporations pair their products with music, celebrities etc. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RU_J8YzN4Cohttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RU_J8YzN4Cohttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RU_J8YzN4Co 7-12

13. Classical Conditioning in Real Life Learning to Fear:Learning to Fear: –May learn to fear any stimulus that is paired with something that elicits pain, surprise, or embarrassment –https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvCI-gNK_y4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvCI-gNK_y4 –Humans come biologically “prepared” to learn certain fears faster than others (evolutionary basis) E.g., snakes, spiders, heightsE.g., snakes, spiders, heights 7-13

14. Copyright © 2013 Pearson Canada The Case of Little Albert Conditioned “Little Albert” to be afraid of white rats by pairing the neutral stimulus (rats) with an unconditioned stimulus (loud noises)Conditioned “Little Albert” to be afraid of white rats by pairing the neutral stimulus (rats) with an unconditioned stimulus (loud noises) Days later, fear had also generalized to other white and furry objectsDays later, fear had also generalized to other white and furry objects 7-14

15. Classical Conditioning in Real Life Learning to Fear:Learning to Fear: –Phobias: an exaggerated unrealistic fear of a specific situation, activity, or object –Turophobia- fear of cheese –Omphalophobia- fear of belly buttons (being touched and touching one) 7-15

16. Classical Conditioning in Real Life Accounting for Taste:Accounting for Taste: –Classical conditioning can explain how we learn to like & dislike many foods and odours –Researchers have taught animals to dislike foods/odours by pairing them with drugs that cause nausea or other unpleasant symptoms 7-16

17. Classical Conditioning in Real Life We have a biological readiness to associate sickness with taste over other senses food when associated with nausea, even if due to flu can, become a conditioned association 7-17

18. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioningOperant conditioning –B.F. Skinner –The process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences 7-18

19. Consequences of Behaviour Skinner argued that a response can lead to three types of consequences (neutral, reinforcement or punishment):Skinner argued that a response can lead to three types of consequences (neutral, reinforcement or punishment): 1.A neutral consequence neither increases or decreases the probability that the response will recur 7-19

20. Consequences of Behaviour Skinner argued that a response can lead to three types of consequences:Skinner argued that a response can lead to three types of consequences: 2. Reinforcement the process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows 7-20

21. Consequences of Behaviour Skinner argued that a response can lead to three types of consequences:Skinner argued that a response can lead to three types of consequences: 3.Punishment the process by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows 7-21

22. Reinforcement & Punishment Reinforcement & Punishment Reinforcement:Reinforcement: Punishment:Punishment: 7-22

23. Positive & Negative Consequences Reinforcement:Reinforcement: Always increases the likelihood of a responseAlways increases the likelihood of a response Punishment:Punishment: Always decreases the likelihood of a responseAlways decreases the likelihood of a response 7-23

24. Reinforcement Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement –When a response is followed by the presentation or increase in intensity of a reinforcing stimulus; response becomes more likely to occur 7-24

25. Copyright © 2013 Pearson Canada Reinforcement Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement –When a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; response becomes more likely to occur –Example, nagging or scolding 7-25

26. Punishment Positive punishmentPositive punishment –When a response is followed by the presentation or increase in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; response becomes less likely to occur 7-26

27. Copyright © 2013 Pearson Canada Punishment Negative punishmentNegative punishment –When a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of a pleasant stimulus; response becomes less likely to occur 7-27

28. Positive & Negative Consequences Reinforcement:Reinforcement: Punishment:Punishment: 7-28

29. When behaviours are not likely to occur spontaneously, may use shaping to teach to others (e.g., animals & children)When behaviours are not likely to occur spontaneously, may use shaping to teach to others (e.g., animals & children) 7-29 Operant Conditioning in Real Life: Shaping

30. ShapingShaping –An operant conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced – Successive approximations: behaviours that are ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired response –https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y10MTi2cL04 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y10MTi2cL04 –1 min 20 sec –https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRV-SU6ObKE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRV-SU6ObKE –1 min 30 seconds 7-30 Operant Conditioning in Real Life: Shaping

31. Behaviour modificationBehaviour modification –The application of operant conditioning techniques to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behaviour –Also called applied behaviour analysis –https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iyCx-OLzgJw (3 min 30 seconds) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iyCx-OLzgJw 7-31 Operant Conditioning in Real Life

32. The Pros of Punishment Punishment can be effective when applied correctly:Punishment can be effective when applied correctly: –Punishment most effective when it occurs immediately after the undesirable behaviour E.g., being pulled over versus photo radar ticketsE.g., being pulled over versus photo radar tickets –The consistency of punishment is more important than the severity of punishment 7-32

33. The Cons of Punishment 1.People often administer punishment inappropriately 2.The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear, or rage These negative emotions can create more problemsThese negative emotions can create more problems 7-33

34. The Cons of Punishment 3.The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary and depends on the presence of the punisher 4.Most misbehaviour is hard to punish immediately 7-34

35. The Cons of Punishment 5. Punishment conveys little information 6. An action intended to punish may instead be reinforcing because it bring attention 7-35

36. The Cons of Punishment If punishment MUST be applied, psychologists recommend the following guidelines: It should not involve physical abuse; instead, parents can use time-outs and loss of privileges (negative punishers)It should not involve physical abuse; instead, parents can use time-outs and loss of privileges (negative punishers) It should be accompanied by information about what kind of behaviour would be appropriateIt should be accompanied by information about what kind of behaviour would be appropriate It should be followed, whenever possible, by the reinforcement of desirable behaviourIt should be followed, whenever possible, by the reinforcement of desirable behaviour 7-36

37. Observational Learning Observational learningObservational learning 7-37

38. Observational Learning Observational learningObservational learning –Process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behaviour of another (a model) rather than through experience –E.g., Bandura’s bobo doll experiments –https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=NjTxQy_U3ac https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=NjTxQy_U3achttps://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=NjTxQy_U3ac –Stop at 2 minutes 7-38

39. Observational Learning Observational learningObservational learning –Process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behaviour of another (a model) rather than through experience –E.g., Bandura’s bobo doll experiments –https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=NjTxQy_U3ac https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=NjTxQy_U3achttps://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=NjTxQy_U3ac –Stop at 2 minutes 7-39

40. The Case of Media Violence Does media violence make people behave more aggressively?Does media violence make people behave more aggressively? –Meta-analyses show that the greater the exposure to violence in movies/TV, the stronger the likelihood of behaving aggressive –Violent media increases the likelihood of aggressive and violent behaviour 7-40

41. The Case of Media Violence Does media violence make people behave more aggressively?Does media violence make people behave more aggressively? When grade-school children cut back on watching TV or playing video games, aggression also decreases This is all correlational research 7-41

42. The Case of Media Violence –But some researchers argue that most people who view violence don’t become aggressive –May lead to desensitization –Children & adults who are already aggressive are more drawn to violent media & more affected by them 7-42

43. Social-Cognitive View on Aggression Social-cognitive theorists would say that there is a relationship between media violence & aggressionSocial-cognitive theorists would say that there is a relationship between media violence & aggression –Repeated acts of aggression model behaviour; provide people with scripts; promote permissive beliefs about aggression; desensitization –BUT... perceptions, interpretations, and personality dispositions intervene in determining our responses 7-43

44. Worldwide video game sales are now at $20 billionWorldwide video game sales are now at $20 billion Almost 90% have violent contentAlmost 90% have violent content Meta-analysis by Anderson and Bushman (2001) :Meta-analysis by Anderson and Bushman (2001) : 54 studies54 studies 4262 participants4262 participants Playing violent video games led to an increase in aggressive behaviour, increase in aggressive thoughts, increase in aggressive emotions, physiological arousal and a decrease in prosocial behaviour. Robust findings at a statistical level and were found in children, adults, males, females, experimental and non-experimental studies.Playing violent video games led to an increase in aggressive behaviour, increase in aggressive thoughts, increase in aggressive emotions, physiological arousal and a decrease in prosocial behaviour. Robust findings at a statistical level and were found in children, adults, males, females, experimental and non-experimental studies. 7 - 44 Meta-analysis on video game violence and aggression