1. AP Psychology
Chapter 8

2. A Thought
Unlike some animals we are not born with a genetic blueprint for life.
Nature's most important gift to us may be our adaptability – our capacity to learn new behaviors that enable us to cope with changing circumstances.
Learning- a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

3. What are some ways that you learn?
How do we learn
What are some ways that you learn?
Seeing
Doing
Associating
Which one?

4. Association Animals can learn simple associations
Complex animals learn more response – outcome associations.
Associate learning- learning that certain events occur together. The events may be stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning.

5. Conditioning Conditioning is the process of learning associations.
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signal an unconditional stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditional stimulus. Also know as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning.
Good example is Pavlov

6. Operant Conditioning
We learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequences and thus to repeat acts followed by good results.
Conditioning is not the only form of learning. Through observational learning we learn from others experiences and examples.
By conditioning and by observation we humans learn and adapt to our environments.

7. Classical Condtioning
Ivan Pavlov
A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signal an unconditional stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditional stimulus. Also know as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning.

8. Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning would lead us into the area of behaviorism and John Watson.

9. Ivan Pavlov
US – unconditioned stimulus. Naturally and automatically -triggers a response
UR- unconditioned response -the unlearned ,naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus.
CR- conditioned response- the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
CS- conditioned stimulus- the irrelevant stimulus

10. Conditioned = learned unconditioned = unlearned
A thought to ponder
Conditioned = learned
unconditioned = unlearned

11. Cause and effects of classical conditioning
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous
Recovery
Generalization
Discrimination

12. Acquisition
The initial stage in classical conditioning: the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditional stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Extinction When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and eventually causes extinction.

13. Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

14. Generalization
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for a stimuli to elicit similar response.
Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization. Pavlov conditioned the dog’s salivation (CR) by using miniature vibrators (CS) on the thigh. When he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog’s body, salivation dropped.

15. Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

16. Extending Pavlov’s Understanding
Pavlov and Watson considered consciousness, or mind, unfit for the scientific study of psychology. However, they underestimated the importance of cognitive processes and biological constraints

17. Cognitive Process
Early behaviorists believed that learned behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless mechanisms
However, later behaviorists suggested that animals learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988).

18. Biological Predispositions
Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of learning were similar for all animals. Therefore, a pigeon and a person do not differ in their learning.
However, behaviorists later suggested that learning is constrained by an animal’s biology.

19. Biological Predispositions
John Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning and not to others (light or sound).

20. Thank you Pavlov
Pavlov’s greatest contribution to psychology is isolating elementary behaviors from more complex ones through objective scientific procedures.

21. Applications of Classical Conditioning
John B. Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom.

22. Why classical conditioning
Alcoholics may be conditioned (aversively) by reversing their positive-associations with alcohol.
Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.

23. Operant & Classical Conditioning
1. Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.

24. Operant and classical conditioning
Classical conditioning involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus. Operant conditioning involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli.

25. Skinner's Experiments
Edward Thorndike – behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behavior followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Skinner’s experiments extend Thorndike’s thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.

26. Operant Chamber AKA the Skinner Box
It contains a bar that can be manipulated to obtain a water or food reinforcer.

27. Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations
Rewards
Treats
Kind words

28. Reinforcer
 Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink.
 Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer.

29. Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers
Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.
Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.
We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study.

30. Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired response each time it occurs.
Partial Reinforcement: Reinforces a response only part of the time. Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on.
OBJECTIVE 14| Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of continuous and partial reinforcement schedules, and identify four schedules of partial reinforcements.

31. Ratio Schedule
Fixed –ratio schedule In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces only after a specified number of responses.
Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals, which produces slow, steady responses. (e.g., pop quiz.)

32. Punishment
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement. A punisher is a consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior.
Although there may be some justification for occasional punishment (Larzelaere & Baumrind, 2002), it usually leads to negative effects.
Results in unwanted fears.
Conveys no information to the organism.
Justifies pain to others.
Causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence.
Causes aggression towards the agent.
Causes one unwanted behavior to appear in place of another.

33. Punishment Punished behavior is not forgotten it is suppressed.
Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by demonstrating that aggression is a way to cope with problems
Can create fear
Punishment tells you what not to do
Reinforcement tells you to do.

34. Extending Skinner’s Understanding
Skinner believed in inner thought processes and biological underpinnings, but many psychologists criticize him for discounting them.

35. Cognition & Operant Conditioning
Evidence of cognitive processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental representations, of the layout of the maze (environment).
OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how latent learning and the effect of external rewards demonstrate that cognitive processing is an important part of learning

36. Latent Learning-learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Such cognitive maps are based on latent learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).

37. Motivation
What motivates you?

38. Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.
Do you have any examples for either one?

39. Biological Predisposition
Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive.
Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors.
OBJECTIVE 17| Explain how biological predisposition place limits on what can be achieved through operant conditioning.
Photo: Bob Bailey
Marian Breland Bailey

40. Skinners Legacy
He stated with some controversy, by repeating over and over that external influences shape behavior and by urging the use of operant principles to influence people’s behavior at school, work, and home.

41. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership.
At work

42. Operant vs. Classical Conditioning
OBJECTIVE 20| Identify the major similarities and differences between classical and operant conditioning.

43. Learning by Observation
Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others.
The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward.
© Herb Terrace
OBJECTIVE 21| Describe the process of observational learning, and explain the importance of the discovery of mirror neurons.
©Herb Terrace

44. Mirror Neurons
Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.
Reprinted with permission from the American
Association for the Advancement of Science,
Subiaul et al., Science 305: (2004)
© 2004 AAAS.

45. Imitation Onset
Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart.
Child Development, Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk.
Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants.

46. Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University
Bandura's Experiments
Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.
OBJECTIVE 22| Describe Bandura's findings on what determines whether we will imitate a model.
Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University

47. Applications of Observational Learning
Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.

48. Positive Observational Learning
Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.
OBJECTIVE 23| Discuss the impact of prosocial modeling.
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

49. Television and Observational Learning
Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression.
Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images

50. Modeling Violence
Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Glassman/ The Image Works
Children modeling after pro wrestlers