2. 8 birds rodents 5

6. neurotransmitters

10. Nagaraja & Jeganathan (2003) Nagaraja & Jeganathan (2003)‏ Examined the effects of acute and chronic conditions of overcrowding on free choice ethanol intake in rats

11. Aim: Aim: To examine the effects of overcrowding on ethanol intake in rats Method: Method:A lab experiment with independent measures and two conditions

12. Subjects: Subjects: Groups of male albino rats

13. Conditions: Acute stressed - Overcrowded for 6 hours a day for a week Chronic stressed - Overcrowded continuously for a week

14. Both conditions had access to ethanol as well as other liquids

15. The intake for each group was measured

16. Results: Chronic stressed group showed increase in ethanol intake and ethanol preference over other liquids.

17. Relatively small and easy to handle The brains of animals are not the same as humans: results may not be generalisable Some animals have very short gestation periods and short reproductive cycles Their genetic structure is not the same as humans: results may not be generalisable Pro-speciesism suggests that we ought to do all we can to protect our own species Animals in experiments are not in their natural surroundings, and therefore distressing conditions

18. Some animals (mice etc) have a similar brain structure to humans Human lives are complex and factors rarely occur in isolation Drugs have been developed that could otherwise not have been developed. Animals should be treated ethically. They are not sufficiently different from humans to be treated as objects Some animals (mice, rats etc) have a short lifespan (2 years) Some procedures have to be carried out daily Some diseases (Parkinson's) have to be replicated in animals using drugs, and so may not be the same as the disease itself. Therefore, studies might lack validity

19. The knowledge obtained may also improve the lives of the species being tested on. Some procedures require accessing specific parts of the brain that might then be damaged. Some procedures require strict control over the environment Using animals may not be credible Procedures can be carried out on humans that can not be done on animals. E.g. ablation and leisoning Many animals feel pain

21. 4 Against Practical reasons ? Ethical Reasons ?