1. Determining System Requirements & Information Gathering
Modern Systems Analysis and Design (4ed) Jeffrey A. Hoffer Joey F. George Joseph S. Valacich
Systems Analysis and Design (6ed)
Kendall & Kendall
Determining System Requirements
& Information Gathering

2. System Requirements Determination

3. Types of requirement User requirements System requirements
Statements in natural language plus diagrams of the services the system provides and its operational constraints. Written for customers.
System requirements
A structured document setting out detailed descriptions of the system’s functions, services and operational constraints. Defines what should be implemented so may be part of a contract between client and contractor.

4. User requirements
Should describe functional and non-functional requirements in such a way that they are understandable by system users who don’t have detailed technical knowledge.
User requirements are defined using natural language, tables and diagrams as these can be understood by all users.

5. System requirements
More detailed specifications of system functions, services and constraints than user requirements.
They are intended to be a basis for designing the system.
They may be incorporated into the system contract.
System requirements may be defined or illustrated using system models discussed in Chapter 8.

6. Functional and non-functional requirements
Statements of services the system should provide, how the system should react to particular inputs and how the system should behave in particular situations.
Non-functional requirements
constraints on the services or functions offered by the system such as timing constraints, constraints on the development process, standards, etc.
Domain requirements
Requirements that come from the application domain of the system and that reflect characteristics of that domain.

7. Functional requirements
Describe functionality or system services.
Depend on the type of software, expected users and the type of system where the software is used.
Functional user requirements may be high-level statements of what the system should do but functional system requirements should describe the system services in detail.

8. Non-functional requirements
These define system properties and constraints e.g. reliability, response time and storage requirements. Constraints are I/O device capability, system representations, etc.
Process requirements may also be specified mandating a particular CASE system, programming language or development method.
Non-functional requirements may be more critical than functional requirements. If these are not met, the system is useless.

9. Non-functional classifications
Product requirements
Requirements which specify that the delivered product must behave in a particular way e.g. execution speed, reliability, etc.
Organizational requirements
Requirements which are a consequence of organizational policies and procedures e.g. process standards used, implementation requirements, etc.
External requirements
Requirements which arise from factors which are external to the system and its development process e.g. interoperability requirements, legislative requirements, etc.

10. Domain requirements
Derived from the application domain and describe system characteristics and features that reflect the domain.
Domain requirements be new functional requirements, constraints on existing requirements or define specific computations.
If domain requirements are not satisfied, the system may be unworkable.

11. Requirement Specification
a statement of what
the system must do or
characteristics it must have
Written from businessperson perspective (“what” of system)
Later requirements become more technical (“how” of system)

12. Functional vs. Nonfunctional
A functional requirement relates directly to a process the system has to perform or information it needs to contain.
Nonfunctional requirements refer to behavioral properties that the system must have, such as performance and usability.

13. Functional Requirements

14. Nonfunctional Requirements

15. Characteristics for Successful Requirements Determination
Impertinence
Impartiality
Relaxing constraints
Attention to details
Reframing

16. Deliverables of Requirements Determination
From interviews and observations
Interview transcripts, observation notes, meeting minutes
From existing written documents
Mission and strategy statements, business forms, procedure manuals, job descriptions, training manuals, system documentation, flowcharts
From computerized sources
JAD session results, CASE repositories, system prototype displays and reports

17. Traditional Requirements Determination Methods
Interviewing individuals
Interviewing groups
Observing workers
Studying business documents

18. What is Interviewing?
Dialogue with user or manager to obtain their requirements
Two forms:
Open-ended: conversational, questions with no specific answers in mind
Closed-ended: structured, questions with limited range of possible answers

19. Interviewing
Interviewing is an important method for collecting data on information system requirements.
Interviews reveal information about:
Interviewee opinions.
Interviewee feelings.
About the current state of the system.
Organizational and personal goals.
Informal procedures.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

20. Planning the Interview
Five steps in planning the interview are:
Reading background material.
Establishing interview objectives.
Deciding whom to interview.
Preparing the interviewee.
Deciding on question types and structure.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

21. Guidelines for Effective Interviewing
Plan the interview.
Prepare interviewee: appointment, priming questions.
Prepare agenda, checklist, questions.
Listen carefully and take notes (tape record if permitted).
Review notes within 48 hours.
Be neutral.
Seek diverse views.

22. Question Types There are two basic types of interview questions:
Open-ended.
Closed.
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2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

23. Open-Ended Questions
Open-ended interview questions allow interviewees to respond how they wish, and to what length they wish.
Open-ended questions are appropriate when the analyst is interested in breadth and depth of reply.
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2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

24. Advantages of Open-Ended Questions
Eight benefits of open-ended questions are:
Puts the interviewee at ease.
Allows the interviewer to pick up on the interviewee's vocabulary.
Reflect education, values, attitudes, and beliefs.
Provides richness of detail.
Reveals avenues of further questioning that may have gone untapped.
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25. Advantages of Open-Ended Questions
Eight Benefits of open-ended questions are: (continued)
Provides more interest for the interviewee.
Allows more spontaneity.
Makes phrasing easier for the interviewer.
Useful if the interviewer is unprepared.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

26. Disadvantages of Open-Ended Questions
The five drawbacks include:
May result in too much irrelevant detail.
Possibly losing control of the interview.
May take too much time for the amount of useful information gained.
Potentially seeming that the interviewer is unprepared.
Possibly giving the impression that the interviewer is on a "fishing expedition”
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

27. Closed Interview Questions
Closed interview questions limit the number of possible responses.
Closed interview questions are appropriate for generating precise, reliable data that is easy to analyze.
The methodology is efficient, and it requires little skill for interviewers to administer.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

28. Benefits of Closed Interview Questions
Six benefits are:
Saving interview time.
Easily comparing interviews.
Getting to the point.
Keeping control of the interview.
Covering a large area quickly.
Getting to relevant data.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

29. Disadvantages of Closed Interview Questions
Four drawbacks of closed interview questions include:
Boring for the interviewee.
Failure to obtain rich detailing.
Missing main ideas.
Failing to build rapport between interviewer and interviewee.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

30. Interview Guide is a document for developing, planning and conducting an interview.
Each question in an interview guide can include both verbal and non-verbal information.

31. Bipolar Questions and Probes
Bipolar questions are those that may be answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or ‘agree’ or ‘disagree’.
Bipolar questions should be used sparingly.
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2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

32. Probing Questions
Probing questions elicit more detail about previous questions.
The purpose of probing questions is:
To get more meaning.
To clarify.
To draw out and expand on the interviewee's point.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

33. Question Sequencing
The three basic ways of structuring interviews are :
Pyramid, starting with closed questions and working toward open-ended questions.
Funnel, starting with open-ended questions and working toward closed questions.
Diamond, starting with closed, moving toward open-ended, and ending with closed questions.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

34. Pyramid Structure Begins with very detailed, often closed questions
Expands by allowing open-ended questions and more generalized responses
Is useful if interviewees need to be warmed up to the topic or seem reluctant to address the topic
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2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

35. Funnel Structure Begins with generalized, open-ended questions
Concludes by narrowing the possible responses using closed questions
Provides an easy, nonthreatening way to begin an interview
Is useful when the interviewee feels emotionally about the topic
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2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

36. Diamond Structure
A diamond-shaped structure begins in a very specific way
Then more general issues are examined
Concludes with specific questions
Combines the strength of both the pyramid and funnel structures
Takes longer than the other structures
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

37. Closing the Interview
Always ask “Is there anything else that you would like to add?”
Summarize and provide feedback on your impressions.
Ask whom you should talk with next.
Set up any future appointments.
Thank them for their time and shake hands.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

38. Disadvantages of Individual Interviews
Interview one person at a time
Advantages
Easier to schedule than group interviews
Disadvantages
Contradictions and inconsistencies between interviewees
Follow-up discussions are time consuming

39. Group Interviews Interview several key people together Advantages
More effective use of time
Can hear agreements and disagreements at once
Opportunity for synergies
Disadvantages
More difficult to schedule than individual interviews

40. Interview Report Write as soon as possible after the interview.
Provide an initial summary, then more detail.
Review the report with the respondent.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

41. Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
A facilitated process that supports idea generation by groups.
Process
Members come together as a group, but initially work separately.
Each person writes ideas.
Facilitator reads ideas out loud, and they are written on blackboard.
Group discusses the ideas.
Ideas are prioritized, combined, selected, reduced.

42. Questionnaires
Questionnaires are useful in gathering information from key organization members about:
Attitudes.
Beliefs.
Behaviors.
Characteristics.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

43. When to Use Questionnaires
Questionnaires are valuable if:
Organization members are widely dispersed.
Many members are involved with the project.
Exploratory work is needed.
Problem solving prior to interviews is necessary.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

44. Question Types Questions are designed as either: Open-ended Closed
Try to anticipate the response you will get.
Well suited for getting opinions.
Closed
Use when all the options may be listed.
When the options are mutually exclusive.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

45. Questionnaire Language
Questionnaire language should be:
Simple.
Specific.
Free of bias.
Not patronizing.
Technically accurate.
Addressed to those who are knowledgeable.
Appropriate for the reading level of the respondent.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

46. Measurement Scales The two different forms of measurement scales are :
Nominal.
Interval.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

47. Nominal Scales
Nominal scales are used to classify things into categories.
It is the weakest form of measurement.
Data may be totaled.
What type of software do you use the most?
1 = Word Processor
2 = Spreadsheet
3 = Database
4 = An Program
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

48. Interval Scales
An interval scale is used when the intervals are equal.
There is no absolute zero.
Examples of interval scales include the Fahrenheit or centigrade scale.
How useful is the support given by the Technical Support Group?
NOT USEFUL EXTREMELY
AT ALL USEFUL
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2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

49. Validity and Reliability
Questionnaires must be valid and reliable.
Reliability of scales refers to consistency in response--getting the same results if the same questionnaire was administered again under the same conditions.
Validity is the degree to which the question measures what the analyst intends to measure.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

50. Problems with Scales
There are three problems associated with poorly constructed scales:
Leniency.
Central tendency.
Halo effect.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

51. Leniency Caused by easy raters.
Solution is to move the “average” category to the left or right of center.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

52. Central Tendency
Central tendency occurs when respondents rate everything as average.
Improve by making the differences smaller at the two ends.
Adjust the strength of the descriptors.
Create a scale with more points.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

53. Halo Effect
When the impression formed in one question carries into the next question
Solution is to place one trait and several items on each page.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

54. Designing the Questionnaire
Good response rates can be achieved with consistent control of questionnaire.
Allow ample white space.
Allow ample space to write or type in responses.
Make it easy for respondents to clearly mark their answers.
Be consistent in style.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

55. Order of Questions Place most important questions first.
Cluster items of similar content together.
Introduce less controversial questions first.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

56. Web Form Questionnaires
Controls (fields) used on Web forms:
Single line text box.
Scrolling text box, used for one or more paragraphs of text.
Check box for yes-no or true-false answers.
Radio button for mutually exclusive yes-no or true-false answers.
Drop-down menu for selection from a list.
Submit or Clear buttons.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

57. Methods of Administering the Questionnaire
Methods of administering the questionnaire include:
Convening all concerned respondents together at one time.
Personally administering the questionnaire.
Allowing respondents to self-administer the questionnaire.
Mailing questionnaires.
Administering over the Web or via .
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

58. Electronically Submitting Questionnaires
Administering a questionnaire electronically has the following benefits:
Reduced costs.
Collecting and storing the results electronically.
Kendall & Kendall
2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

59. Other Approaches What is Direct Observation?
Watching users do their jobs
Can provide more accurate information than self-reporting (like questionnaires and interviews)
What is Document Analysis?
Review of existing business documents
Can give a historical and “formal” view of system requirements

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Observation
Observation provides insight on what organizational members actually do.
See firsthand the relationships that exist between decision makers and other organizational members.
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STROBE
STRuctured OBservation of the Environment-- a technique for observing the decision maker's environment
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STROBE Elements
Analyzes seven environmental elements:
Office location.
Desk placement.
Stationary equipment.
Props.
External information sources.
Office lighting and color.
Clothing worn by decision makers.
Kendall & Kendall
© 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

63. Analyzing Procedures and Other Documents
Types of information to be discovered:
Problems with existing system
Opportunity to meet new need
Organizational direction
Names of key individuals
Values of organization
Special information processing circumstances
Reasons for current system design
Rules for processing data
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Hard Data
In addition to sampling, investigation of hard data is another effective method for systems analysts to gather information.
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© 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

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Obtaining Hard Data
Hard data can be obtained by:
Analyzing quantitative documents such as records used for decision making.
Performance reports.
Records.
Data capture forms.
Ecommerce and other transactions.
Kendall & Kendall
© 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

66. Qualitative Documents
Examine qualitative documents for the following:
Key or guiding metaphors.
Insiders vs. outsiders mentality.
What is considered good vs. evil.
Graphics, logos, and icons in common areas or Web pages.
A sense of humor.
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© 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

67. Analyzing Qualitative Documents
Qualitative documents include:
Memos.
Signs on bulletin boards.
Corporate Web sites.
Manuals.
Policy handbooks.
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© 2005 Pearson Prentice Hall

68. Analyzing Procedures and Other Documents (cont.)
Four types of useful documents
Written work procedures
Describes how a job is performed
Includes data and information used and created in the process of performing the job or task
Business form
Explicitly indicate data flow in or out of a system
Report
Enables the analyst to work backwards from the report to the data that generated it
Description of current information system
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69. Potential Problems with Procedure Documents
May involve duplication of effort
May have missing procedures
May be out of date
May contradict information obtained through interviews

70. Formal vs. Informal Systems
The official way a system works as described in organization’s documentation
Procedure documents describe formal system
Informal
The way a system actually works in practice
Interviews and observation reveal informal system

71. Contemporary Methods for Determining Requirements
Joint Application Design (JAD)
Brings together key users, managers, and systems analysts
Purpose: collect system requirements simultaneously from key people
Conducted off-site
Group Support Systems
Facilitate sharing of ideas and voicing of opinions about system requirements

72. Contemporary Methods for Determining Requirements (cont.)
CASE tools
Used to analyze existing systems
Help discover requirements to meet changing business conditions
System prototypes
Iterative development process
Rudimentary working version of system is built
Refine understanding of system requirements in concrete terms

73. Joint Application Design (JAD)
Intensive group-oriented requirements determination technique
Team members meet in isolation for an extended period of time
Highly focused
Resource intensive
Started by IBM in 1970s

75. JAD Participants Session Leader: facilitates group process
Users: active, speaking participants
Managers: active, speaking participants
Sponsor: high-level champion, limited participation
Systems Analysts: should mostly listen
Scribe: record session activities
IS Staff: should mostly listen

76. Joint Application Design (cont.)
End Result
Documentation detailing existing system
Features of proposed system
CASE Tools During JAD
Upper CASE tools are used
Enables analysts to enter system models directly into CASE during the JAD session
Screen designs and prototyping can be done during JAD and shown to users

77. Joint Application Design (cont.)
Supporting JAD with GSS
Group support systems (GSS) can be used to enable more participation by group members in JAD
Members type their answers into the computer
All members of the group see what other members have been typing

78. Prototyping Quickly converts requirements to working version of system
Once the user sees requirements converted to system, will ask for modifications or will generate additional requests
Most useful when:
User requests are not clear
Few users are involved in the system
Designs are complex and require concrete form
History of communication problems between analysts and users
Tools are readily available to build prototype

79. Prototyping (cont.) Drawbacks Tendency to avoid formal documentation
Difficult to adapt to more general user audience
Sharing data with other systems is often not considered
Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) checks are often bypassed

80. Business Process Reengineering (BPR)
Search for and implementation of radical change in business processes to achieve breakthrough improvements in products and services
Goals
Reorganize complete flow of data in major sections of an organization
Eliminate unnecessary steps

81. Business Process Reengineering (BPR)
Goals (cont.)
Combine steps
Become more responsive to future change
Identification of processes to reengineer
Key business processes
Set of activities designed to produce specific output for a particular customer or market
Focused on customers and outcome
Same techniques are used as were used for requirements determination

82. Business Process Reengineering (cont.)
Identify specific activities that can be improved through BPR
Disruptive technologies
Technologies that enable the breaking of long-held business rules that inhibit organizations from making radical business changes

83. Agile Methodologies for Requirements Determination
Continual user involvement
Replace traditional SDLC waterfall with iterative analyze – design – code – test cycle
Agile usage-centered design
Focuses on user goals, roles, and tasks
The Planning Game
Based on eXtreme programming
Exploration, steering, commitment

84. Agile Usage-Centered Design Steps
Gather group of programmers, analysts, users, testers, facilitator
Document complaints of current system
Determine important user roles
Determine, prioritize, and describe tasks for each user role
Group similar tasks into interaction contexts
Associate each interaction context with a user interface for the system, and prototype the interaction context
Step through and modify the prototype