1. Biological level of analysis Physiology and behaviour © Hodder & Stoughton 2013

2. Activity Alf is an experienced taxi driver whose job involves ferrying passengers around London every day in his cab. Alf never gets lost and he knows the location of all 25,000 streets and every possible route within 6 miles of the centre of London. Before becoming a taxi driver he spent over 3 years ‘doing the knowledge’, which involves learning all possible destinations and routes off by heart. He had to pass a strict examination of ‘the knowledge’ before he was granted his taxi driver’s licence. © Hodder & Stoughton 2013 1.Alf evidently has an incredible memory of London’s streets and routes, but is this because he has a different type of brain than most people? 2.Maybe learning all the destinations and routes changed the physical structure of his brain in some way, but consider how could we test if this was so?

3. Neural plasticity Neural plasticity is the ability of the nervous system, especially the brain, to alter the number of neurons and/or connections between them in response to environmental influences. The development of sophisticated scanning techniques has allowed researchers to see evidence of neurogenesis, where new neurons grow in certain brain areas. This has especially been seen in regions of the hippocampus, a brain area associated with memory, which suggests that memories are encoded in brain structure through the production of new neurons. Woollett & Maguire (2011) compared 79 trainee male taxi drivers with 31 male controls. Participants did not differ in terms of memory ability or IQ. Participants had MRI brain scans (as did the controls) before training began and 3-4 years later after their taxi driver’s qualification test. The MRI scans showed that the number of hippocampal neurons had increased in those passing their test, but not in the controls or those who failed. © Hodder & Stoughton 2013 How can we relate the concept of neural plasticity and the findings of Woollett & Maguire’s study to Alf’s incredible memory ability?

4. Command words: The language of the learning outcomes Exam questions will require candidates to describe and evaluate how external environmental experiences influence internal biological functioning. This could be achieved by outlining the physiological effects of environmental influence, such as neural plasticity where the structure of the nervous system changes in response to environmental experience. Evaluation could centre on the degree of research support, practical applications and relevant methodological considerations. Additional evaluation could come from an appraisal of related theoretical considerations, such as the ethics of research methods that involve brain scanning, as well as issues like the nature versus nurture debate, which centres on the degree to which behaviour is a result of innate biological factors, learned environmental experiences or, as is more relevant here, an interaction of the two. © Hodder & Stoughton 2013 Learning outcome: Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes

5. Functions of two hormones Oxytocin A hormone manufactured in the hypothalamus and released from the pituitary gland, which is involved in reproductive and maternal behaviour. Oxytocin influences milk production in new mothers, stimulates uterine contractions during birth and influences sexual behaviour, including orgasms, in males and females. Oxytocin is important in mother-child bonding and adult pair-bonding, which suggests it has an ‘affiliation’ purpose. Females have higher levels, which may why they generally tend to be more sociable and nurturing in nature. Testosterone A hormone released from the testes of males, but also found in females, which is important in determining male sexual characteristics and behaviour. Testosterone released in early embryonic development is associated with masculinization of the brain. Testosterone levels are related to aggression in animals, but its influence is less clear on human aggression. Recently testosterone has been linked with autism, due to its effects on the developing brain in infancy. © Hodder & Stoughton 2013

6. Command words: The language of the learning outcomes Exam questions will require candidates to use relevant examples to give a detailed account of the purposes hormones fulfil in human functioning. Differentiation between candidates will occur through the amount of accurate detail supplied. Evaluation could generally centre on what research studies inform about the functions of selected hormones, as well as practical applications and relevant ethical and methodological considerations, such as a consideration of the degree to which the findings of testosterone research performed on animals is generalizable to humans. © Hodder & Stoughton 2013 Learning outcome: Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in human behaviour

7. Nature vs Nurture Brad comes from a deprived area, where crime and unemployment are high and life is tough. Brad has a reputation for aggression. He was expelled from two schools for acts of violence, has been arrested by the police on several occasions for fighting and has only recently been released from a prison sentence for beating someone up following an argument over a car-parking space. Last week Brad was sacked from his job for punching his boss after being told off for being late for work. Brad has several brothers and sisters who have a reputation for aggression and both his father and grandfather have been sent to prison for acts of violence. 1.What possible reasons can you think of for Brad’s aggressive behaviour? 2.How can his high levels of aggression be related to the nature versus nurture debate? © Hodder & Stoughton 2013 The nature versus nurture debate concerns the extent to which behaviour, such as aggression, results from nature via innate biological forces, or nurture via environmental influences. An alternative point of view sees behaviour as an interaction of biological and environmental factors. Consider the case of Brad described below.