1. Chapter 5 Motivation at Work

2. Learning Outcomes
Define motivation and articulate different views of how individuals are motivated at work
Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and its two main modifications
Discuss how the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation influence an individual’s behavior in the workplace

3. Learning Outcomes Describe the two-factor theory of motivation
Explain two new ideas in human motivation
Describe the role of inequity in motivation
Describe the expectancy theory of motivation
Describe the cultural differences in motivation

4. Learning Outcome
Define motivation and articulate different views of how individuals are motivated at work

5. Motivation Arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior
Classification of theories
Internal - Focus on variables within the individual that lead to motivation and behavior
Process - Emphasize the nature of interaction between the individual and the environment
External - Focus on the elements in the environment to explain people’s work behavior

6. Early Motivational Theorists
Max Weber
Meaning of work lies in its potential for contributing to a person’s ultimate salvation
Protestant ethic
Encouraged hard work on the basis that prosperous workers were more likely to find a place in heaven

7. Early Motivational Theorists
Sigmund Freud
Organizational life of a person was founded on the compulsion to work and the power of love
Psychoanalytic approach
Psychoanalysis: Delving into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives and needs
Explains deviant behavior in the workplace

8. Early Motivational Theorists
Adam Smith
Person's self-interest is determined by God, not the government
Self-interest: Doing things in the best interest of and benefit to an individual
Employees are most productive when motivated by self-interest

9. Early Motivational Theorists
Frederick Taylor
Basis of conflict between labor and management is the division of the profits
Labor and management should work together to enlarge total profits

10. Hawthorne Studies Recognized informal aspects of an organization
Studied what motivates people to be productive
Enlightened self-interest - Recognizes one’s own needs and others’ interests

11. Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and its two main modifications
Learning Outcome
Explain Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and its two main modifications

12. Figure 5.1 - Human Needs, Theory X, and Theory Y
© Cengage Learning 2013

13. Theory X and Theory Y Theory X Theory Y
Set of assumptions on how to manage individuals who are motivated by lower order needs
Theory Y
Set of assumptions on how to manage individuals who are motivated by higher order needs

14. McGregor’s Assumptions About People
Based on Theory X
Indolent, lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be led
Inherently self-centered and indifferent
Resistant to change, gullible, not bright, and ready dupes
Based on Theory Y
Passive and resistant behaviors not inherent; result of organizational experience
Possess:
Motivation and development potential
Capacity for assuming responsibility
Readiness to direct behavior toward organizational goals

15. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Organizes human needs into the categories of existence, relatedness, and growth
Existence need - Physiological and physical safety needs
Relatedness need - Interpersonal safety, love, and interpersonal esteem needs
Growth need - Self-actualization and self-esteem needs

16. Progression and Regression Hypothesis
Moving ahead to a higher level of need when one level of need is met
Feature of Maslow’s need hierarchy theory
Progression hypothesis
Going back to the next lower level of needs when frustrated by the inability to meet needs at the next higher level
Feature of ERG theory
Regression hypothesis

17. Learning Outcome
Discuss how the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation influence an individual’s behavior in the workplace

18. McClelland’s Theory
Manifest needs: Learned or acquired needs that are easily perceived
Achievement
Power
Affiliation

19. McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Achievement
Encompasses excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties
The Murray Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Measures the achievement motive

20. McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Achievement
People with high need for achievement:
Set goals that are moderately difficult and achievable
Like to receive feedback
Do not like having external events interfere with their progress toward the goals
Hope and plan for success
Are content to work alone or with other people

21. McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Power
Desire to influence others
Urge to change people or events
Wish to make a difference in life
Socialized power - Used for the benefit of many
Personalized power - Used for individual gain

22. McClelland’s Need Theory: Need for Affiliation
Urge to establish and maintain warm relationships with others
People with a high need for affiliation:
Are motivated to express their emotions
Expect others to express their emotions
Find conflicts disturbing
Are motivated to work through barriers to closeness

23. Need for Autonomy Desire for independence and freedom from constraints
People with a high need for autonomy prefer to:
Work alone
Control the pace of their work

24. Figure 5.2 - Need Theories of Motivation
© Cengage Learning 2013

25. Describe the two-factor theory of motivation
Learning Outcome
Describe the two-factor theory of motivation

26. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene factors
Motivation factors
Both are work conditions, but each addresses a different part of an employee’s experience

27. Table 5.2 - The Motivation-Hygiene Theory of Motivation

28. Critique of Herzberg
A factor may not fit exclusively into the motivation or hygiene categories
Does not account for individual differences
Intrinsic job factors may be more important in determining job satisfaction
Supporting data is based on the critical-incident technique

29. Explain two new ideas in human motivation
Learning Outcome
Explain two new ideas in human motivation

30. New Ideas: Eustress, Strength, and Hope
Stress - Energy experienced when confronted with a difficult situation
Eustress: Healthy, normal stress that leads one to:
Invest in strengths
Find meaning in work
Display courage and principled action
Draw on positive emotions at work
Be optimistic

31. New Ideas: Positive Energy and Full Engagement
To balance the power of full engagement, individuals should:
Manage energy
Disengage from certain activities
Individuals are activated by their own physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual energy
Energy recovery is important in overall performance

32. Beyond the Book: Does Motivation “Work”?
A new study in England argues that motivational awards given to children, such as points, stickers, and treats, have little effect on performance.
They may reduce “intrinsic motivation.” Rather than doing a task for its own sake, they do it just for the reward.
According to Emma Dunmore, head of psychology at Harrogate Grammar School in North Yorkshire, England, children may actually be less motivated by rewards given for performance. In her study, she argues that incentives such as points, treats or stickers have little long-term results because it reduces intrinsic motivation, that is, the desire to perform a task because an individual wants to. Instead, she argues that rewards lead students to do things only for the sake of the reward, leading to feelings that they are being controlled by external factors. As she writes in her study, “Rewards may strengthen behavior in the short term but... they can undermine motivation in the long run because they reduce the individual's perception that they are doing that task of their own free will.”
SOURCE:

33. Describe the role of inequity in motivation
Learning Outcome
Describe the role of inequity in motivation

34. Social Exchange and Equity Theory
Equity theory - Focuses on the interaction between an individual and the environment
Concerned with the social processes that influence motivation and behavior
Categories of exchange relationships
Committed - High positive intensity
Calculated - Low positive or negative intensity
Alienated - High negative intensity

35. Figure 5.3 - The Individual-Organizational Exchange Relationship
SOURCE: J. P. Campbell, M. D. Dunnette, E. E. Lawler, III, and K. E. Weick, Jr., Managerial Behavior, Performance, and Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1970). Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.

36. Adams’s Theory of Inequity
People are motivated when they find themselves in situations of inequity
Inequity: Situation in which a person perceives that he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving and vice versa

37. Figure 5.4 - Equity and Inequity at Work
© Cengage Learning 2013

38. Strategies for Resolution of Inequity
Alter the person’s outcomes
Alter the person’s inputs
Alter the comparison other’s outcomes
Alter the comparison other’s inputs
Change who is used as a comparison other
Rationalize the inequity
Leave the organizational situation

39. New Perspectives on Equity Theory
Individuals who prefer an equity ratio equal to that of their comparison other
Equity sensitives
Individuals who are comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of their comparison other
Benevolents
Individuals who are comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of their comparison other
Entitleds

40. Describe the expectancy theory of motivation
Learning Outcome
Describe the expectancy theory of motivation

41. Expectancy Theory
Explains motivation in terms of an individual’s perception of the performance process
Assumptions
People expect certain outcomes of behavior and performance
People believe there is a correlation between the effort they put forth, the performance they achieve, and the outcomes they receive

42. Key Constructs of Expectancy Theory
Valence: Value or importance one places on a particular reward
Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to performance
Instrumentality: Belief that performance is related to rewards

43. Figure 5.5 - An Expectancy Model for Motivation
© Cengage Learning 2013

44. 3 Causes of Motivational Problems
Disbelief in a relationship between effort and performance
Disbelief in a relationship between performance and rewards
Lack of desire for the rewards offered

45. Moral Maturity Measure of a person’s cognitive moral development
Enable understand an individual’s altruistic, fair, and equitable behavior
Behavior of:
Morally mature people is based on universal ethical principles
Morally immature people is based on egocentric motivations

46. Describe the cultural differences in motivation
Learning Outcome
Describe the cultural differences in motivation

47. Cultural Differences
Most motivation theories in use today have been developed by and about Americans
Motivational theories cannot be universalized

48. Beyond the Book: Motivation in Beijing
Participants in the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games in Beijing faced harsh conditions – 16 hour sessions, heatstroke, exposure to rain, and one session that lasted 51 hours. During the ceremony, some performers wore adult diapers so that they could perform for six hours.
There were, however, almost no complaints from the performers, most of whom agreed that such sacrifices were worth it for the good of the nation.
This case illustrates well not only the power of motivation, but the cross-cultural differences in motivating individuals. Performers and artists in China were asked to rehearse and perform under difficult circumstances, leading to at least one catastrophic injury to renowned dancer Liu Yang, to present the glories of Chinese culture to the rest of the world. With that collective goal in mind, the thousands of individuals endured what many in the West would consider torturous and inhumane conditions.
SOURCE:

49. Friday Night Lights
Does Mike Winchell show the characteristics of this chapter’s definition of motivation early in the scene? Do you expect him to show any of the characteristics after the scene ends and he returns to the team?
Which needs discussed in this chapter does Mike appear to focus on early in the scene? Which needs become his focus later in the scene?
Apply “McClelland’s Need Theory” to this scene. Which parts of that theory appear in this scene? Give specific examples.
The Odessa, Texas passion for Friday night high school football
(Permian High Panthers) comes through clearly in this cinematic treatment
of H. G. (Buzz) Bissinger’s well-regarded book of the same title.
Coach Gary Gaines (Billy Bob Thornton) leads the Panthers to the 1988
semifinals where they must compete against a team of much larger players.
A fast-moving pace in the football sequences and a slower pace in
the serious, introspective sequences give this film many fine moments.
Ask your students:
1. Does Mike Winchell show the characteristics of the definition of
motivation early in the scene? Do you expect him to show any of the
characteristics after the scene ends and he returns to the team?
2. Which needs discussed earlier in this chapter does Mike appear to
be focused on early in the scene? Which needs become his focus
later in the scene?
3. Apply “McClelland’s Need Theory” to this scene. Which parts of
that theory appear in this scene? Give specific examples.

50. Urban Escapes
Which needs in Maslow’s hierarchy are most important to the employees who work for Urban Escapes, and how can managers use this information to develop a highly motivated workforce?
According to equity theory, how might an Urban Escapes guide react if he or she feels underpaid or unappreciated?
What outcomes or rewards possess high valence for the managers and guides who work at Urban Escapes?
Founded in 2008 by Maia Josebachvili and Bram Levy, Urban Escapes has earned high praise for its vast array of exciting outdoor adventures. For the Urban Escapes employees working behind the scenes to deliver “Zen Escape Yoga Hikes” and “Boulder and Brew Tours,” motivation comes naturally. The company’s managers and guides are driven by the freedom and opportunity that only a start-up company can offer. “We gave everyone a lot of ownership in their cities,” Josebachvili says of her guides. “Initially, we said every time you want to run a trip, you run it by us. Within a few months, I was like, ‘Okay, if you know it’s going to work, don’t come to us—you got this’. After a year, I felt really good about what they were doing.”
Ask your students:
Which needs in Maslow’s hierarchy are most important to the employees who work for Urban Escapes, and how can managers use this information to develop a highly motivated workforce?
According to equity theory, how might an Urban Escapes guide react if he or she feels underpaid or unappreciated?
What outcomes or rewards possess high valence for the managers and guides who work at Urban Escapes?