1. Anatomy & Physiology = study of characteristics
Common Characteristics Of Living Things:
1. Organization: pattern that differs from environment, involves regulation of internal conditions within limits
2. Responsiveness: (irritability), responding to changes in environment. Adaptation = long term response
3. Growth and Differentiation Growth = increase in size/cell number Differentiation = specialization of cells to perform particular functions
4. Reproduction
5. Movement Internal Transport substances in body External move around environment

2. 6. Metabolism and Excretion Metabolism = all chemical processes in the body (building and breaking molecules)
Form Follows Function: the shape of a structure is related to its use
Anatomy = study of internal and external structures of body and their relationships to each other: Form
Gross Anatomy = macroscopic, see by eye
Microscopic Anatomy = cell and molecule level, need microscope
Cytology = study of cells
Histology = study of tissues (groups of specialized cells that work together to perform functions)

3. Physiology = study of how organism perform functions: (Function)
Human Anatomy and Physiology = the study of the form and function of the human body
-understanding physiology requires a knowledge of anatomy and physics (chemistry), to explain how the heart works, how we breathe, how we regulate blood glucose…
The pattern of organization at the lower levels determines both the characteristics and functions at the higher levels.

4. Principle of Complementarity
The anatomy of a part of the body reflects the physiology of that part -
form determines function
-all the parts of the body are designed to create an extremely efficient and effective machine

5. Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment = unchanging sameness
For the body to work as efficiently as possible, there are hundreds of variables that must remain relatively constant (at a set point) - essential to life
body temperature, blood glucose levels, blood pressure, body CO2 levels, body pH…
these variables are constantly changing

6. The body uses control systems (loops) to maintain these variables at their respective setpoint after a stimulus causes it to deviate from the setpoint
Homeostatic Regulation (keeping within set limits)
1. Autoregulation (Intrinsic Regulation) - activities of a cell/tissue/organ/system adjust automatically in response to environmental change.
2. Extrinsic Regulation - results from activities of nervous or endocrine systems
-Nervous system: directs rapid, short term, specific responses
-Endocrine system: works through hormones, slow to act but long lasting effects

7. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Homeostasis use requires coordinated efforts of multiple organ systems: human body integrated to support life
There are three interdependent components of a control system:
Receptor
monitors the variable and responds to changes (stimuli). The receptor sends information regarding the changed variable to the…
Control center
determines the set point at which the variable is maintained. Then the control center sends information to the…

8. Effector
provides the means to respond to the stimulus (creates an effect) to bring the variable back to the set point
- essentially a muscle or a gland

9. Homeostatic Control Systems

10. Homeostatic Control Systems (Loops)
There are 2 different types of control systems
Most (over 99%) of them are referred to as negative feedback loops where the output of the system (effector) causes a change in the variable which opposes the original stimulus

11. If the original stimulus caused a increase in a variable, the effector will cause the variable to decrease back to the set point
Function like the heating/cooling system in a house to maintain a constant room temperature

12. Negative Feedback

13. Negative Feedback The setpoint for body temperature is 37ºC
If body temperature increases:
blood vessels dilate increasing blood flow to the skin
sweating occurs
If body temperature decreases
blood vessels constrict reducing blood to the skin
skeletal muscles contract vigorously (shiver)

14. Homeostatic Control Systems (Loops)
The minority (less than 1%) of the systems are referred to as positive feedback systems where the output of the system causes a change in the variable which reinforces the original stimulus
If the original stimulus caused a increase in a variable, the effector will cause the variable to further increase

15. Positive Feedback

16. Anatomical Position
The anatomical position is a standardized method of observing or imaging the body that allows precise and consistent anatomical references.
When in the anatomical position, the subject stands.
standing upright
facing the observer, head level
eyes facing forward
feet flat on the floor
arms at the sides
palms turned forward (ventral)

17. Reclining Position
If the body is lying face down, it is in the prone position.
If the body is lying face up, it is in the supine position.

18. Clinical terminology is based on a Greek or Latin root word.
Common Regional Names cranial (skull), thoracic (chest), brachial (arm), patellar (knee), cephalic (head), and gluteal (buttock) as seen in Figure
Clinical terminology is based on a Greek or Latin root word.

19. -Lumbar region = lower back
-Gluteal region = butt
-Pelvic region = hips
-Pubic region = anterior pelvis
-Inguinal region = groin
-Femoral region= thigh
-Crural region= front of leg
-Sural region=calf
-Tarsal region= ankle
-Pedal region= top of foot
-Plantar region= sole of foot

20. Anatomical Terms - contd.
-Carpal region = wrist
-Manual region = hand
-Abdominal region = belly

21. Directional Terms
Directional terms are used to precisely locate one part of the body relative to another and to reduce length of explanations.
Commonly used directional terms:
dorsal, superior, medial, and distal

22. Superior
-towards the head
The eyes are superior to the mouth.
Inferior
away from the head
The stomach is inferior to the heart.

23. Dorsal or Ventral Dorsal or Posterior Ventral or Anterior
at the back of the body
The brain is posterior to the forehead.
Ventral or Anterior
at the front of the body
The sternum is anterior to the heart.

24. Medial or Lateral Medial Lateral nearer to the midline of the body
The heart lies medial to the lungs.
Lateral
farther from the midline of the body
The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand.

25. Proximal or Distal Proximal
nearer to the attachment of the limb to the trunk
The knee is proximal to the ankle.
Distal
farther from the attachment of the limb to the trunk
The wrist is distal to the elbow.

26. Superficial - towards the surface
Deep - towards the interior

27. Body Cavities
Body cavities are spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs.

28. Dorsal Body Cavity
The dorsal body cavity is located near the dorsal surface of the body and has two subdivisions, the cranial cavity and the vertebral canal.
The cranial cavity is formed by the cranial bones and contains the brain.
The vertebral (spinal) canal is formed by the bones of the vertebral column and contains the spinal cord.
Three layers of protective tissue, called meninges, line the dorsal body cavity.

29. Dorsal Body Cavity

30. Ventral Body Cavity Near ventral surface of body 2 subdivisions
thoracic cavity above diaphragm
abdominopelvic cavity below diaphragm
Diaphragm = large, dome-shaped muscle
Organs called viscera
Organs covered with serous membrane

31. Serous Membranes
Thin slippery membrane lines body cavities not open to the outside
parietal layer lines walls of cavities
visceral layer covers viscera within the cavities
Serous fluid reduces friction

32. Ventral Body Cavity
The thoracic cavity contains two pleural cavities, and the mediastinum, which includes the pericardial cavity.
The pleural cavities enclose the lungs.
The pericardial cavity surrounds the heart.
The abdominopelvic cavity is divided into a superior abdominal and an inferior pelvic cavity.
Viscera of the abdominal cavity include the stomach, spleen, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine.
Viscera of the pelvic cavity include the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine and internal female and male reproductive structures.

33. Mediastinum
The mediastinum is a broad, median partition between the lungs that extends from the sternum to the vertebral column, it contains all contents of the thoracic cavity except the lungs.
heart and great vessels, esophagus, trachea, thymus.

34. Thoracic Cavity
Encircled by ribs, sternum, vertebral column and muscle
Divided into 2 pleural cavities by mediastinum
Mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except lungs

35. Abdominopelvic Cavity
Inferior portion of ventral body cavity below diaphragm
Encircled by abdominal wall, bones & muscles of pelvis

36. Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
To describe the location of organs or abdominopelvic abnormalities easily, the abdominopelvic cavity may be divided into
nine regions by drawing four imaginary lines as shown in.
quadrants by passing imaginary horizontal and vertical lines through the umbilicus.

37. Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants
Describe locations of organs or source of pain
Tic-tac-toe grid or intersecting lines through navel

38. Clinical Application: Autopsy
An autopsy is a postmortem examination of the body and dissection of the internal organs to confirm or determine the cause of death.
An autopsy supplies information relating to the deceased individual.

39. Planes and Sections
Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body or organs into definite areas
Principal planes include:
midsagittal (medial) and parasagittal
frontal (coronal)
transverse (cross-sectional or horizontal)
oblique
Sections
flat surfaces resulting from cuts through body structures, named according to the plane on which the cut is made (transverse, frontal, and midsagittal sections)

40. Sagittal Plane Sagittal plane Midsagittal plane Parasagittal plane
divides the body or an organ into left and right sides
Midsagittal plane
produces equal halves
Parasagittal plane
produces unequal halves

41. Other Planes and Sections
Frontal or coronal plane
divides the body or an organ into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions
Transverse(cross-sectional) or horizontal plane
divides the body or an organ into upper (superior) or lower (inferior) portions
Oblique plane
some combination of 2 other planes