1. Planet Earth has always been in a State of Change; the rate of change has never been constant Global Issues in Nematode Ecology and Management Commonalities and Differences in Nematode Issues across the Globe Howard Ferris Department of Nematology University of California Davis

2. Big Issues in World Agriculture, Economy and Ecology 1. Global climate change and mitigation measures 2. Fossil fuel depletion and costs 3. Global trade agreements 4. Land ownership and land tenure Context: the need to provide food, fiber, water, and shelter for 6.7 billion people …………and their interlinkages

3. Adaptation: Shifts in land-use patterns and management practices Climate Change Land TenureTrade Agreements Energy Costs Big Issues in World Agriculture, Economy and Ecology Mitigation Mitigation- slowing the process Adaptation- minimizing the effect on services

4. How are different nematode functional groups affected by climate and land-use change? Provide ServicesProvide Disservices Mitigation tradeoffs?

5. A simplistic analysis of climate change effects on soil nematodes But.the same factors affect growth and tolerance of hosts, prey and natural enemies of the nematodes. ….And management decisions of the environmental steward. So, the net outcome is unpredictable, at least by me. Nematode winners and losers?

6. Thermal amplitude of bacterivores Ferris et al., 1995 We have some of the necessary information…… Physiological Ecology

7. Foley et al., Science 309, 570 -574 (2005) A conceptual framework for comparing trade-offs on ecosystem services But we need to think at a larger scale……

8. Professor Shenglei Fu, Chinese Academy of Sciences: Mitigation - reforestation – altering climate Adaptation - vegetation mixes to maximize functions and services Services: pulp production wildlife habitat pollination refugia erosion control groundwater quality carbon sequestration decomposition nutrient cycling nutrient retention mineralization soil quality esthetics public education Total area 50 ha. Each plot 1 ha. Treatments 14 Replications 3 China, 2007 Landscape Ecology

9. Mitigation/Adaptation: Coffee under tree shade – Costa Rica, 2008 Temperature effects Rhizosphere interactions Host effects Farmscape Ecology

10. Winter cover crop – bell beans California, 2006 No-till soybeans, Brazil, 2006 Soil fertility Organic matter Food web activity Soil structure Fossil fuel reduction Habitat conservation Food web activity Soil structure Adaptations

11. Adapted from: Meine van Noordwijk World Agroforestry Centre Bogor, Indonesia Environmental and economic pressures Current crops/animals New crops/animals New cropping system New farming system Non-farming livelihoods Is life still possible on this planet? Sustainagility: Change crops/animals Sustainagility: Change cropping system Sustainagility: Change farming system Sustainagility: Shift to non-farming livelihood Sustainagility: Migration to another region of planet Sustainability of... Soil Fauna Sustainability is a journey, not a destination (Howard Shapiro, Mars Inc.)

12. Consistent N-yield over 75 years without input N-yield similar to that of high input wheat Structure Index Basal Index From Glover et al., subm. Land-use change in Kansas: Soil food web effects Community Ecology

13. Soil Food Web: Functions and Services in relation to punctuated and continuous resource supply OPr B F P Mineralization Reverting to prairie? Need to understand invasion biology of omnivores and predators O Pr B F P Regulation Easier to go in this direction

14. Some Global Issues in Nematode Management Nematicide tradeoffs – production enhancement vs. economics, environmental hazards and food web simplification (pesticide treadmill) Zimbabwe, 1961 California, 1999

15. Korthals et al., 1998 Impact on Higher Trophic Levels California, 1973 An ideal: Biodiversity-friendly nematicides that protect roots without killing non-target soil organisms: “immunogenic nematicides”

16. Global Issues in Nematode Management Management practices in industrialized agriculture result in food web simplification – cp1 and cp2 bacterivores and fungivores predominate Reduction in cp3, 4, 5 higher trophic levels Costa Rica, 2008 Farmscape Ecology

17. Global Issues in Nematode Management Nematode biomass in soil food web Conventional Organic Bacterivore Biomass Herbivore Biomass

18. What is the rhizosphere effect of Theobroma on Musa? molecular signals border cells protozoa nematodes arthropods Hawes et al., 1998 Farrar et al., 2003 Hirsch et al., 2003 Molecular Ecology

19. Other Nematode Services – enhancing soil fertility bacteria and bacterivore nematodes with twenty nematodes 0 nematodeswith five nematodes Fu et al. 2005 An example of positive and negative feedback Behavioral Ecology

20. The Importance of Biodiversity California, 1996

21. Depleted Soils of Africa FAO - redrawn Corn, cassava, beans - Congo A B C D E F Crossover Rotations – Oostenbrink, 1959 ABCDEF Netherlands, 1965 California, 1982

22. Land-use Change: The Global Spread of Nematodes Examples: Citrus – Tylenchulus semipenetrans worldwide Grapevines and their nematode complexes Soybeans and Heterodera glycines Cereals and grass seeds – Anguina spp. Potatoes – Globodera and Meloidogyne spp. Bananas and Radopholus, Helicotylenchus, Meloidogyne, Pratylenchus. Most major nematode pest problems in California are caused by non-native species. Effects of global exploration, human migration, modern transportation: Despite regulatory efforts, major crops throughout the world support the same nematode complexes. Some nematodes have attributes of invaders: Arrival Establishment Integration Spread Detection Escape Invasion Biology

23. sugarbeet cyst nematode Sugarbeet Cyst Nematode - Heterodera schachtii sugarbeet production

24. Sources of resistance and other control/mitigation measures should apply in new areas of production. Caveat: consider the local acceptability of new varieties and the availability of appropriate infrastructure/technology. But….. Every year, we lose between 17,000 and 100,000 species as the result of human activities (The Sixth Extinction. Leakey and Lewin, 1995) That represents an enormous loss of functions, services and genes. The problem is compounded by proprietary ownership of resistance genes and commercialization of seed sources, reducing local selection of desirable traits. Adaptation to Nematode Globalization and Land-use Change

25. Dr. Vandana Shiva’s movement concerned with saving seeds, trading seeds, farming without corporate-derived seed. Ghandi: “You cannot monopolize this which we need for life.” Genetic diversity is a common legacy – it should be conserved, not owned Svalbard Global Seed Vault will store three million different crop varieties in case of a worldwide catastrophe.

26. Global Issues in Nematode Ecology and Management: Summary and Research Directions…… Organismal level: Adapt knowledge from biological models and microcosm experiments Farmscape and Landscape levels: Adapt management to scale of system Develop a biodiversity-friendly landscape

27. Global Issues in Nematode Ecology and Management: Summary and Research Directions…… Organismal level: Adapt knowledge from biological models and microcosm experiments Farmscape and Landscape levels: Adapt management to scale of system Develop a biodiversity-friendly landscape Thank you