1. Modified from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne Principles of Computer Operating Systems Lecture 23 Chapter 16/18: Distributed Systems

2. 2 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Chapter 16: Distributed System Structures Motivation Types of Network-Based Operating Systems Network Structure Network Topology Communication Structure Communication Protocols Robustness Design Issues An Example: Networking

3. 3 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Chapter Objectives To provide a high-level overview of distributed systems and the networks that interconnect them To discuss the general structure of distributed operating systems

4. 4 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Motivation Distributed system is collection of loosely coupled processors interconnected by a communications network Processors variously called nodes, computers, machines, hosts Site is location of the processor Reasons for distributed systems Resource sharing  sharing and printing files at remote sites  processing information in a distributed database  using remote specialized hardware devices Computation speedup – load sharing Reliability – detect and recover from site failure, function transfer, reintegrate failed site Communication – message passing

5. 5 Principles of Computer Operating Systems A Distributed System

6. 6 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Network-Operating Systems Users are aware of multiplicity of machines. Access to resources of various machines is done explicitly by: Remote logging into the appropriate remote machine (telnet, ssh) Remote Desktop (Microsoft Windows) Transferring data from remote machines to local machines, via the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) mechanism

7. 7 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Distributed-Operating Systems Users not aware of multiplicity of machines Access to remote resources similar to access to local resources Data Migration transfer data by transferring entire file, or transferring only those portions of the file necessary for the immediate task Computation Migration transfer the computation, rather than the data, across the system

8. 8 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Distributed-Operating Systems (Cont.) Process Migration execute an entire process, or parts of it, at different sites  Load balancing – distribute processes across network to even the workload  Computation speedup – subprocesses can run concurrently on different sites  Hardware preference – process execution may require specialized processor  Software preference – required software may be available at only a particular site  Data access – run process remotely, rather than transfer all data locally

9. 9 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Network Structure Local-Area Network (LAN) – designed to cover small geographical area. Multiaccess bus, ring, or star network Speed  10 – 100 megabits/second Broadcast is fast and cheap Nodes:  usually workstations and/or personal computers  a few mainframes

10. 10 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Network Types (Cont.) Wide-Area Network (WAN) – links geographically separated sites Point-to-point connections over long-haul lines  often leased from a phone company Speed  1.544 – 45 megbits/second Broadcast usually requires multiple messages Nodes:  usually a high percentage of mainframes

11. 11 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Network Topology Sites in the system can be physically connected in a variety of ways; They are compared with respect to the following criteria:  Installation cost – How expensive is it to link the various sites in the system?  Communication cost – How long does it take to send a message from site A to site B?  Reliability – If a link or a site in the system fails, can the remaining sites still communicate with each other? The various topologies are depicted as graphs whose nodes correspond to sites An edge from node A to node B corresponds to a direct connection between the two sites

12. 12 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Network Topology

13. 13 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Communication Structure Naming and name resolution How do two processes locate each other to communicate? Routing strategies How are messages sent through the network? Connection strategies How do two processes send a sequence of messages? Contention The network is a shared resource, so how do we resolve conflicting demands for its use? The design of a communication network must address four basic issues:

14. 14 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Naming and Name Resolution Name systems in the network Address messages with the process-id Identify processes on remote systems by pair Domain name service (DNS) specifies the naming structure of the hosts, as well as name to address resolution (Internet)

15. 15 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Routing Strategies Fixed routing: A path from A to B is specified in advance Path changes only if a hardware failure disables it Since the shortest path is usually chosen, communication costs are minimized Fixed routing cannot adapt to load changes Ensures that messages will be delivered in the order in which they were sent Virtual circuit: A path from A to B is fixed for the duration of one session Different sessions involving messages from A to B may have different paths Partial remedy to adapting to load changes Ensures that messages will be delivered in the order in which they were sent

16. 16 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Routing Strategies (Cont.) Dynamic routing: The path used to send a message form site A to site B is chosen only when a message is sent Usually a site sends a message to another site on the link least used at that particular time Adapts to load changes by avoiding routing messages on heavily used path Messages may arrive out of order  This problem can be remedied by appending a sequence number to each message

17. 17 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Connection Strategies Circuit switching: A permanent physical link is established for the duration of the communication i.e., telephone system Message switching: A temporary link is established for the duration of one message transfer i.e., post-office mailing system Packet switching: Messages of variable length are divided into fixed- length packets which are sent to the destination Each packet may take a different path through the network The packets must be reassembled into messages as they arrive Circuit switching requires setup time, but incurs less overhead for shipping each message, and may waste network bandwidth Message and packet switching require less setup time, but incur more overhead per message

18. 18 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Contention CSMA/CD - Carrier sense with multiple access (CSMA) with collision detection (CD) A site determines whether another message is currently being transmitted over that link. If two or more sites begin transmitting at exactly the same time, then they will register a CD and will stop transmitting When the system is very busy, many collisions may occur, and thus performance may be degraded CSMA/CD is used successfully in the Ethernet system the most common network system Several sites may want to transmit information over a link simultaneously. Techniques to avoid repeated collisions include:

19. 19 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Contention (Cont.) Token passing: A unique message type, known as a token, continuously circulates in the system (usually a ring structure) A site that wants to transmit information must wait until the token arrives When the site completes its round of message passing, it retransmits the token A token-passing scheme is used by some IBM and HP/Apollo systems Message slots: A number of fixed-length message slots continuously circulate in the system (usually a ring structure) Since a slot can contain only fixed-sized messages, a single logical message may have to be broken down into a number of smaller packets, each of which is sent in a separate slot This scheme has been adopted in the experimental Cambridge Digital Communication Ring

20. 20 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Communication Via ISO Network Model

21. 21 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Communication Protocol Physical layer: handles the mechanical and electrical details of the physical transmission of a bit stream Data-link layer: handles the frames, or fixed-length parts of packets, including any error detection and recovery that occurred in the physical layer Network layer: provides connections and routes packets in the communication network, including handling the address of outgoing packets, decoding the address of incoming packets, and maintaining routing information for proper response to changing load levels The communication network is partitioned into the following multiple layers:

22. 22 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Communication Protocol (Cont.) Transport layer: responsible for low-level network access and for message transfer between clients, including partitioning messages into packets, maintaining packet order, controlling flow, and generating physical addresses Session layer: implements sessions, or process-to-process communications protocols Presentation layer: resolves the differences in formats among the various sites in the network, including character conversions, and half duplex/full duplex (echoing) Application layer: interacts directly with the users’ deals with file transfer, remote-login protocols and electronic mail, as well as schemas for distributed databases

23. 23 Principles of Computer Operating Systems The ISO Protocol Layer

24. 24 Principles of Computer Operating Systems The TCP/IP Protocol Layers

25. 25 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Design Issues Transparency the distributed system should appear as a conventional, centralized system to the user Fault tolerance the distributed system should continue to function in the face of failure Scalability as demands increase, the system should easily accept the addition of new resources to accommodate the increased demand Clusters a collection of semi-autonomous machines that acts as a single system

26. 26 Principles of Computer Operating Systems

27. 27 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Chapter 18 Distributed Coordination Event Ordering Mutual Exclusion Atomicity Concurrency Control Deadlock Handling Election Algorithms Reaching Agreement

28. 28 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Chapter Objectives To describe various methods for achieving mutual exclusion in a distributed system To explain how atomic transactions can be implemented in a distributed system To show how some of the concurrency-control schemes can be modified for use in a distributed environment To present schemes for handling deadlock prevention, deadlock avoidance, and deadlock detection in a distributed system

29. 29 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Event Ordering Happened-before relation (denoted by  ) If A and B are events in the same process, and A was executed before B, then A  B If A is the event of sending a message by one process and B is the event of receiving that message by another process, then A  B If A  B and B  C then A  C

30. 30 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Implementation of  Associate a timestamp with each system event Require that for every pair of events A and B, if A  B, then the timestamp of A is less than the timestamp of B Within each process Pi a logical clock, LCi is associated The logical clock can be implemented as a simple counter that is incremented between any two successive events executed within a process  Logical clock is monotonically increasing A process advances its logical clock when it receives a message whose timestamp is greater than the current value of its logical clock If the timestamps of two events A and B are the same, then the events are concurrent We may use the process identity numbers to break ties and to create a total ordering

31. 31 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Distributed Mutual Exclusion (DME) Assumptions The system consists of n processes; Each process P i resides at a different processor Each process has a critical section that requires mutual exclusion Requirement If P i is executing in its critical section, then no other process P j is executing in its critical section We present two algorithms to ensure the mutual exclusion execution of processes in their critical sections

32. 32 Principles of Computer Operating Systems DME: Centralized Approach One of the processes in the system is chosen to coordinate the entry to the critical section A process that wants to enter its critical section sends a request message to the coordinator The coordinator decides which process can enter the critical section next, and its sends that process a reply message When the process receives a reply message from the coordinator, it enters its critical section After exiting its critical section, the process sends a release message to the coordinator and proceeds with its execution This scheme requires three messages per critical-section entry: request reply release

33. 33 Principles of Computer Operating Systems DME: Fully Distributed Approach When process P i wants to enter its critical section, it generates a new timestamp, TS, and sends the message request (P i, TS) to all other processes in the system When process P j receives a request message, it may reply immediately or it may defer sending a reply back When process P i receives a reply message from all other processes in the system, it can enter its critical section After exiting its critical section, the process sends reply messages to all its deferred requests

34. 34 Principles of Computer Operating Systems DME: Fully Distributed Approach (Cont) The decision whether process P j replies immediately to a request(P i, TS) message or defers its reply is based on three factors: If P j is in its critical section, then it defers its reply to P i If P j does not want to enter its critical section, then it sends a reply immediately to P i If P j wants to enter its critical section but has not yet entered it, then it compares its own request timestamp with the timestamp TS  If its own request timestamp is greater than TS, then it sends a reply immediately to P i (P i asked first)  Otherwise, the reply is deferred

35. 35 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Desirable Behavior of Fully Distributed Approach Freedom from Deadlock is ensured Freedom from starvation is ensured, since entry to the critical section is scheduled according to the timestamp ordering The timestamp ordering ensures that processes are served in a first- come, first served order The number of messages per critical-section entry is 2 x (n – 1) This is the minimum number of required messages per critical-section entry when processes act independently and concurrently

36. 36 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Three Undesirable Consequences The processes need to know the identity of all other processes in the system, which makes the dynamic addition and removal of processes more complex If one of the processes fails, then the entire scheme collapses This can be dealt with by continuously monitoring the state of all the processes in the system Processes that have not entered their critical section must pause frequently to assure other processes that they intend to enter the critical section This protocol is therefore suited for small, stable sets of cooperating processes

37. 37 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Token-Passing Approach Circulate a token among processes in system Token is special type of message Possession of token entitles holder to enter critical section Processes logically organized in a ring structure Unidirectional ring guarantees freedom from starvation Two types of failures Lost token – election must be called Failed processes – new logical ring established

38. 38 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Atomicity Either all the operations associated with a program unit are executed to completion, or none are performed Ensuring atomicity in a distributed system requires a transaction coordinator, which is responsible for the following: Starting the execution of the transaction Breaking the transaction into a number of subtransactions, and distribution these subtransactions to the appropriate sites for execution Coordinating the termination of the transaction, which may result in the transaction being committed at all sites or aborted at all sites

39. 39 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Election Algorithms Determine where a new copy of the coordinator should be restarted Assume that a unique priority number is associated with each active process in the system, and assume that the priority number of process P i is i Assume a one-to-one correspondence between processes and sites The coordinator is always the process with the largest priority number. When a coordinator fails, the algorithm must elect that active process with the largest priority number Two algorithms, the bully algorithm and a ring algorithm, can be used to elect a new coordinator in case of failures

40. 40 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Bully Algorithm Applicable to systems where every process can send a message to every other process in the system If process P i sends a request that is not answered by the coordinator within a time interval T, assume that the coordinator has failed; P i tries to elect itself as the new coordinator P i sends an election message to every process with a higher priority number, P i then waits for any of these processes to answer within T If no response within T, assume that all processes with numbers greater than i have failed; P i elects itself the new coordinator If answer is received, P i begins time interval T´, waiting to receive a message that a process with a higher priority number has been elected If no message is sent within T´, assume the process with a higher number has failed; P i should restart the algorithm

41. 41 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Bully Algorithm (Cont) If P i is not the coordinator, then, at any time during execution, P i may receive one of the following two messages from process P j P j is the new coordinator (j > i). P i, in turn, records this information P j started an election (j > i). P i, sends a response to P j and begins its own election algorithm, provided that Pi has not already initiated such an election After a failed process recovers, it immediately begins execution of the same algorithm If there are no active processes with higher numbers, the recovered process forces all processes with lower number to let it become the coordinator process, even if there is a currently active coordinator with a lower number

42. 42 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Ring Algorithm Applicable to systems organized as a ring (logically or physically) Assumes that the links are unidirectional, and that processes send their messages to their right neighbors Each process maintains an active list, consisting of all the priority numbers of all active processes in the system when the algorithm ends If process Pi detects a coordinator failure, it creates a new active list that is initially empty. It then sends a message elect(i) to its right neighbor, and adds the number i to its active list

43. 43 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Ring Algorithm (Cont) If P i receives a message elect(j) from the process on the left, it must respond in one of three ways: 1. If this is the first elect message it has seen or sent, P i creates a new active list with the numbers i and j  It then sends the message elect(i), followed by the message elect(j) 2. If i  j, then the active list for P i now contains the numbers of all the active processes in the system  P i can now determine the largest number in the active list to identify the new coordinator process 3. If i = j, then P i receives the message elect(i)  The active list for P i contains all the active processes in the system  P i can now determine the new coordinator process.

44. 44 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Reaching Agreement There are applications where a set of processes wish to agree on a common “value” Such agreement may not take place due to: Faulty communication medium Faulty processes  Processes may send garbled or incorrect messages to other processes  A subset of the processes may collaborate with each other in an attempt to defeat the scheme

45. 45 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Faulty Communications Process P i at site A, has sent a message to process P j at site B; to proceed, P i needs to know if P j has received the message Detect failures using a time-out scheme When P i sends out a message, it also specifies a time interval during which it is willing to wait for an acknowledgment message form P j When P j receives the message,  it immediately sends an acknowledgment to P i If P i receives the acknowledgment message within the specified time interval,  it concludes that P j has received its message If a time-out occurs, P j needs to retransmit its message and wait for an acknowledgment

46. 46 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Faulty Communications (Cont) Continue until P i either receives an acknowledgment, or is notified by the system that B is down Suppose that P j also needs to know that P i has received its acknowledgment message, in order to decide on how to proceed In the presence of failure,  it is not possible to accomplish this task It is not possible in a distributed environment for processes P i and P j to agree completely on their respective states

47. 47 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Faulty Processes (Byzantine Generals Problem) Communication medium is reliable, but processes can fail in unpredictable ways Consider a system of n processes, of which no more than m are faulty Suppose that each process P i has some private value of V i Devise an algorithm that allows each non-faulty P i to construct a vector X i = (A i,1, A i,2, …, A i,n ) such that If P j is a nonfaulty process, then A ij = V j. If P i and P j are both non-faulty processes, then X i = X j. Solutions share the following properties A correct algorithm can be devised only if n  3 x m + 1 The worst-case delay for reaching agreement is proportionate to m + 1 message-passing delays

48. 48 Principles of Computer Operating Systems Faulty Processes (Cont) An algorithm for the case where m = 1 and n = 4 requires two rounds of information exchange: Each process sends its private value to the other 3 processes Each process sends the information it has obtained in the first round to all other processes If a faulty process refuses to send messages, a non-faulty process can choose an arbitrary value and pretend that that value was sent by that process After the two rounds are completed, a non-faulty process Pi can construct its vector Xi = (Ai,1, Ai,2, Ai,3, Ai,4) as follows: A i,j = V i For j  i, if at least two of the three values reported for process P j agree, then the majority value is used to set the value of A ij  Otherwise, a default value (nil) is used