1. Transgenic technology

2. Breeding method Breeding method Crop Improvement Crop Improvement Problems in Agriculture 1.Quantity 2.Quality 3.Stress Environment 4.Public acceptance

3. Important Traits High crop yield High crop yield High nutritional quality High nutritional quality Abiotic stress tolerance Abiotic stress tolerance Pest resistance Pest resistance Adaptation to inter-cropping Adaptation to inter-cropping Nitrogen Fixation Nitrogen Fixation Insensitivity to photo-period Elimination of toxic compounds Elimination of toxic compounds

4. Biotech goes global

5. Wide range of crops 57 fruits, vegetables, field crops and other plants – ranging from lab trials to commercial production 14 Vegetables Broccoli Cabbage Carrot Cauliflower Cucumber Eggplant Lettuce Onion Pea/Bean Pepper Potato Spinach Squash Tomato 16 Fruits Apple Banana Cantaloupe Cherry Citrus Coconut Grape Kiwi Mango Melon Papaya Pineapple Plum Raspberry Strawberry Watermelon 16 Field Crops Alfalfa Barley Canola Cassava Clover Cotton Flax Maize Rice Safflower Sorghum Soybean Sugar Beet Sugar Cane Sunflower Wheat 11 other crops Chicory Cocoa Coffee Garlic Lupins Mustard Oil Palm Oilseed Poppy Olive Peanut Tobacco

6. Field Crops by Country

7. Herbicide Resistance Herbicide Resistance Insect Resistance Insect Resistance Virus Resistance Virus Resistance Delayed Fruit Ripening Delayed Fruit Ripening The big five successful traits Hot Issue 1.Genetically Modified Food 2.Golden Rice 3.Molecular Farming

8. Roundup Ready™ Soybeans A problem in agriculture is the reduced growth of crops imposed by the presence of unwanted weeds. Herbicides such as Roundup TM and Liberty Link TM are able to kill a wide range of weeds and have the advantage of breaking down easily. Development of herbicide resistant crops allows the elimination of surrounding weeds without harm to the crops.

9. a)Glyphosate Resistance i. Glyphosate = “Roundup”, “Tumbleweed” = Systemic herbicide ii.Marketed under the name Roundup, glyphosate inhibits the enzyme EPSPS (S-enolpyruvlshikimate-3 phosphate – involved in chloroplast amino acid synthesis), makes aromatic amino acids. iii.The gene encoding EPSPS has been transferred from glyphosate-resistant E. coli into plants, allowing plants to be resistant. Glufosinate Resistance i. Glufosinate (the active ingredient being phosphinothricin) mimics the structure of the amino acid glutamine, which blocks the enzyme glutamate synthase. ii.Plants receive a gene from the bacterium Streptomyces that produce a protein that inactivates the herbicide. Herbicide Resistance

10. c) Bromoxynil Resistance i.A gene encoding the enzyme bromoxynil nitrilase (BXN) is transferred from Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteria to plants. ii.Nitrilase inactivates the Bromoxynil before it kills the plant. d) Sulfonylurea. i.Kills plants by blocking an enzyme needed for synthesis of the amino acids valine, leucine, and isoleucine. ii.Resistance generated by mutating a gene in tobacco plants, and transferring the mutated gene into crop plants. Herbicide Resistance

11. Insect Resistance Corn hybrid with a Bt gene Corn hybrid susceptible to European corn borer Various insect resistant crops have been produced. Most of these make use of the Cry gene in the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) ; this gene directs the production of a protein that causes paralysis and death to many insects.

12. Insect resistance Anti-Insect Strategy - Insecticides Anti-Insect Strategy - Insecticides a) Toxic crystal protein from Bacillus thuringensis Toxic crystals found during sporulation Toxic crystals found during sporulation Alkaline protein degrades gut wall of lepidopteran larvae Alkaline protein degrades gut wall of lepidopteran larvae Corn borer catepillarsCorn borer catepillars Cotton bollworm catepillarsCotton bollworm catepillars Tobacco hornworm catepillarsTobacco hornworm catepillars Gypsy moth larvae Gypsy moth larvae Sprayed onto plants – but will wash off Sprayed onto plants – but will wash off The Bt toxin isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis has been used in plants. The gene has been placed in corn, cotton, and potato, and has been marketed.

13. b) Plant protease inhibitors have been explored since the 1990s: i.Naturally produced by plants, are produced in response to wounding. ii.They inhibit insect digestive enzymes after insects ingest them, causing starvation. iii.Tobacco, potato, and peas have been engineered to resist insects such as weevils that damage crops while they are in storage iv.Results have not been as promising as with Bt toxin, because it is believed that insects evolved resistance to protease inhibitors. Insect resistance

14. Papaya infected with the papaya ringspot virus Virus resistance gene introduced Virus Resistant Crops The Freedom II squash has a modified coat protein that confer resistance to zucchini yellows mosaic virus and watermelon mosaic virus II. Scientists are now trying to develop crops with as many as five virus resistance genes

15. a)Chemicals are used to control the insect vectors of viruses, but controlling the disease itself is difficult because the disease spreads quickly. b)Plants may be engineered with genes for resistance to viruses, bacteria, and fungi. c)Virus-resistant plants have a viral protein coat gene that is overproduced, preventing the virus from reproducing in the host cell, because the plant shuts off the virus’ protein coat gene in response to the overproduction. d)Coat protein genes are involved in resistance to diseases such as cucumber mosaic virus, tobacco rattle virus, and potato virus X. Virus resistance

16. e)Resistance genes for diseases such as fungal rust disease and tobacco mosaic virus have been isolated from plants and may be transferred to crop plants. f)Yellow Squash and Zucchini Seeds are available that are resistant to watermelon mottle virus, zucchini yellow mosaic virus, and cucumber mosaic virus. g) Potato. a) Monsanto developed potatoes resistant to potato leaf roll virus and potato virus X, which also contained a Bt toxin gene as a pesticide. b) hain restaurants do not use genetically engineered potatoes due to public pressures. h) Papaya Varieties resistant to papaya ring spot virus have been developed. Varieties resistant to papaya ring spot virus have been developed. Virus resistance

17. First biotech plant product – Flav’r Sav’r tomato “Rot-Resistant Tomato” “Rot-Resistant Tomato” Anti-sense gene  complementary to polygalacturonase (PG) Anti-sense gene  complementary to polygalacturonase (PG) PG = pectinase  accelerates plant decay/rotting

18. a)Allow for crops, such as tomatoes, to have a higher shelf life. b)Tomatoes generally ripen and become soft during shipment to a store. c)Tomatoes are usually picked and sprayed with the plant hormone ethylene to induce ripening, although this does not improve taste d)Tomatoes have been engineered to produce less ethylene so they can develop more taste before ripening, and shipment to markets. Delayed Fruit Ripening

19. Plant Biotechnology Revolution: Genetically Engineered Foods. Foods that contain an added gene sequence Foods that contain an added gene sequence Foods that have a deleted gene sequence Foods that have a deleted gene sequence Animal products from animals fed GM feed Animal products from animals fed GM feed Products produced by GM organisms Products produced by GM organisms

20. 1.More than 60% of processed foods in the United States contain ingredients from genetically engineered organisms. 2.12 different genetically engineered plants have been approved in the United States, with many variations of each plant, some approved and some not. 3.Soybeans. a)Soybean has been modified to be resistant to broad-spectrum herbicides. b)Scientists in 2003 removed an antigen from soybean called P34 that can cause a severe allergic response. 4.Corn a)Bt insect resistance is the most common use of engineered corn, but herbicide resistance is also a desired trait. Plant Biotechnology Revolution: Genetically Engineered Foods.

21. 4. Corn a)Bt insect resistance is the most common use of engineered corn, but herbicide resistance is also a desired trait. b)Products include corn oil, corn syrup, corn flour, baking powder, and alcohol. c)By 2002 about 32% of field corn in the United States was engineered. 5.Canola. a)More than 60% of the crop in 2002 was genetically engineered; it is found in many processed foods, and is also a common cooking oil. 6.Cotton. a)More than 71% of the cotton crop in 2002 was engineered. b)Engineered cottonseed oil is found in pastries, snack foods, fried foods, and peanut butter. 7.Other Crops Other engineered plants include papaya, rice, tomato, sugar beet, and red heart chicory. Plant Biotechnology Revolution: Genetically Engineered Foods

22. Normal rice “Golden” rice Golden Rice Transgenic technology produced a type of rice that accumulates beta-carotene in rice grains. Once inside the body, beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A. “Normal” rice

23. Golden Rice 1.More than one third of the world’s population relies on rice as a food staple, so rice is an attractive target for enhancement. 2.Golden Rice was genetically engineered to produce high levels of beta-carotene, which is a precursor to vitamin A. Vitamin A is needed for proper eyesight. 3.Biotechnology company Syngenta, who owns the rights to Golden Rice, is exploring commercial opportunities in the United States and Japan. Monsanto will provide licenses to Golden Rice technology royalty-free. 4.Other enhanced crops include iron-enriched rice and tomatoes with three times the normal amount of beta-carotene Plant Biotechnology Revolution: Nutritionally Enhanced Plants

24. Pharmaceutical Production in Plants Genetically modified plants have been used as “bioreactors” to produce therapeutic proteins for more than a decade. A recent contribution by transgenic plants is the generation of edible vaccines. Edible vaccines are vaccines produced in plants that can be administered directly through the ingestion of plant materials containing the vaccine. Eating the plant would then confer immunity against diseases. Edible vaccines produced by transgenic plants are attractive for many reasons. The cost associated with the production of the vaccine is low, especially since the vaccine can be ingested directly, and vaccine production can be rapidly up scaled should the need arises. Edible vaccine is likely to reach more individuals in developing countries. The first human clinical trial took place in 1997. Vaccine against the toxin from the bacteria E.coli was produced in potato. Ingestion of this transgenic potato resulted in satisfactory vaccinations and no adverse effects.

25. 1.A new field where plants and animals are genetically engineered to produce important pharmaceuticals, vaccines, and other valuable compounds. 2.Plants may possibly be used as bioreactors to mass-produce chemicals that can accumulate within the cells until they are harvested. 3.Soybeans have been used to produce monoclonal antibodies with therapeutic value for the treatment of colon cancer. Drugs can also be produced in rice, corn, and tobacco plants 4.Plants have been engineered to produce human antibodies against HIV and Epicyte Pharmaceuticals has begun clinical trials with herpes antibodies produced in plants. Plant Biotechnology Revolution: Molecular Farming

26. 5. Edible Vaccines a)People in developing countries have limited access to many vaccines. b)Making plants that produce vaccines may be useful for places where refrigeration is limited. c)Potatoes have been studied using a portion of the E. coli enterotoxin in mice and humans. d)Other candidates for edible vaccines include banana and tomato, and alfalfa, corn, and wheat are possible candidates for use in livestock. e)Edible vaccines may lead to the eradication of diseases such as hepatitis B and polio. Plant Biotechnology Revolution: Molecular Farming

27. One focus of current vaccine effort is on hepatitis B, a virus responsible for causing chromic liver disease. Transgenic tobacco and potatoes were engineered to express hepatitis B virus vaccine. During the past two years, vaccines against a E.coli toxin, the respiratory syncytial virus, measles virus, and the Norwalk virus have been successfully expressed in plants and delivered orally. These studies have supported the potential of edible vaccines as preventive agents of many diseases. Edible Vaccines There is hope to produce edible vaccines in bananas, which are grown extensively throughout the developing world.

28. a)Plant seeds may be a potential source for plastics that could be produced and easily extracted. b)A type of PHA (polyhydroxylalkanoate) polymer called “poly- beta-hydroxybutyrate”, or PHB, is produced in Arabidopsis, or mustard plant. c) PHB can be made in canola seeds by the transfer of three genes from the bacterium Alicaligenes eutrophus, which codes for enzymes in the PHB synthesis pathway. d)Monsanto produces a polymer called PHBV through Alicaligenes fermentation, which is sold under the name Biopol. Plant Biotechnology Revolution: Biopolymers and Plants

29. Areas of ongoing debate Environment Environment Human Health Human Health Food security Food security Socio-economic concerns Socio-economic concerns

30. Environment Loss of biodiversity Loss of biodiversity Cross-pollination Cross-pollination Emergence of superweeds and superbugs Emergence of superweeds and superbugs Potential increase in use of herbicides Potential increase in use of herbicides Need to increase yields to feed growing population Need to increase yields to feed growing population Possibility of reducing need for pesticides, fertilizers Possibility of reducing need for pesticides, fertilizers Grow more food on same amount of land Grow more food on same amount of land Anti-GMPro-GM *Opinions are generalized, and not all opponents or proponents may hold all of these views.

31. Human Health Fear of unknown allergens Fear of unknown allergens Spread of anti-biotic resistance Spread of anti-biotic resistance Inadequate regulation of new products Inadequate regulation of new products Greater regulations than other foods Greater regulations than other foods Potential benefits to nutrition Potential benefits to nutrition golden rice enhanced protein content in corn soybean oil with less saturated fat Anti-GMPro-GM

32. Food Security Need redistribution, not just more Need redistribution, not just more Farmers will not be able to afford expensive seed Farmers will not be able to afford expensive seed Developing countries should not have to eat the food others reject Developing countries should not have to eat the food others reject Modified seeds will allow farmers to grow more to feed their family and to sell, reducing the need for food aid Modified seeds will allow farmers to grow more to feed their family and to sell, reducing the need for food aid Public-private cooperation can transfer technology Public-private cooperation can transfer technology Pro-GM Anti-GM

33. Socio-economic concerns Corporations benefit, not those in need Corporations benefit, not those in need Products needed in developing countries are not being developed because the market is not profitable Products needed in developing countries are not being developed because the market is not profitable It is wrong to patent life It is wrong to patent life Patents needed because new strains are intellectual property Patents needed because new strains are intellectual property Publicly funded research can benefit the public good Publicly funded research can benefit the public good