1. Ch. 9: ORGANIZING PRODUCTION  Definition of a firm  The economic problems that all firms face  Technological vs. economic efficiency  The principal-agent problem  Different types of markets in which firms operate  Explain why markets coordinate some economic activities and firms coordinate others

2. The Firm and Its Economic Problem Firm –an institution that hires factors of production and organizes them to produce and sell goods or services. Firm’s Goal –Maximize economic profit. –If the firm fails to maximize economic profits, it is either eliminated or bought out by other firms seeking to maximize profit.

3. Accounting vs Economic Profits Accounting profits –measures a firm’s profit using rules established by the IRS and/or the Financial Accounting Standards Board. –goal is to report profit so that the firm pays the correct amount of tax and is open and honest about its financial situation with its bank and other lenders. Economic profits –measure profit based on an opportunity cost measure of cost. Primary difference between accounting and economic profits is in measurement of costs.

4. Opportunity Cost –A firm’s opportunity cost of producing a good is the best forgone alternative use of its factors of production, usually measured in dollars. –Opportunity cost of production includes  Explicit costs  Implicit costs

5. –Explicit costs costs paid directly in money –wages, materials, utilities, rent, etc. –Implicit costs costs incurred when a firm uses the owners’ own capital or time for which it does not make a direct money payment. Implicit costs of labor –The opportunity cost of the owner’s labor spent running the business is the wage income forgone by not working in the next best alternative job.

6. Cost of capital can be explicit or implicit –The firm can rent its capital and pay an explicit rental rate –The firm can buy capital and incur an implicit opportunity cost of using its own capital, called the implicit rental rate of capital. The implicit rental rate of capital is made up of:  Economic depreciation  change in the market value of capital over a given period.  Differs from accounting depreciation.  Interest forgone the foregone return on the funds used to acquire the capital.

7. A firm pays $1 for a machine on 1/1/2008. Its market value drops to $800,00 by 12/31/2008. The interest rate is 10%. What’s the implicit annual rental rate on the capital? 1.$100,000 2.$200,000 3.$300,000 4.$400,000

8. A farmer owns 1000 acres of that he could rent to someone else for $100 per acre per year. The value of the land is currently $1000 per acre and is expected to rise at 3% per year. The farmer could earn an interest rate of 5% on any money he invests elsewhere. What is the opportunity cost of of using one acre of land in his own business? 1.$100 2.$300 3.$400 4.$500

9. Economic vs. Accounting Profit Accounting Profit = TR – Explicit Costs Economic Profit = TR – Opportunity Costs of production = TR – Expl. Costs – Impl. Costs = Acc. Profits – Implicit Costs If Economic Profit > 0  Acc Profits > Implicit Costs  Firms enter If Economic Profit < 0  Acc Profits < Implicit Costs  Firms exit

10. 5 Decisions for the Firm to Maximize Profits  What to produce and in what quantities  How to produce  How to compensate managers and workers  How to market and price products  What to produce itself and what to buy from other firms

11. Technological vs. Economic Efficiency Technological efficiency –occurs when a firm produces a given level of output by using the least amount of inputs. –There may be different combinations of inputs to use for producing a given level of output. Economic efficiency –occurs when the firm produces a given level of output at the least cost. –economically efficient method depends on the relative costs of capital and labor

12. Information and Organization Command system uses a managerial hierarchy. Commands pass downward through the hierarchy and information (feedback) passes upward. Problem: must monitor. Incentive system Rewards to induce workers to perform in ways that maximize the firm’s profit. Problem:  Sometimes difficult to create proper incentives.  Principal agent problem.  Ownership  Incentive pay

13. 3 Types of Business Organization –Proprietorship – Partnership – Corporation Information and Organization

14. Proprietorship  single owner  unlimited liability  proprietor makes management decisions and receives the firm’s profit.  profits are taxed the same as the owner’s other income.

15. Information and Organization Partnership  two or more owners  unlimited liability.  partners must agree on a management structure and how to divide up the profits.  profits are taxed as the personal income of the owners.

16. Information and Organization Corporation  owned by one or more stockholders with limited liability,  The personal wealth of the stockholders is not at risk if the firm goes bankrupt.  The profit of corporations is taxed twice corporate tax on firm profits income taxes paid by stockholders on dividends.

17. Pros and Cons of Different Types of Firms  Proprietorships easy to set up Managerial decision making is simple Profits are taxed only once The owner’s entire wealth is at stake The firm dies with the owner The cost of capital and labor can be high

18. Pros and Cons of Different Types of Firms  Partnerships Easy to set up Employ diversified decision-making processes Can survive the death or withdrawal of a partner Profits are taxed only once partnerships make attaining a consensus about managerial decisions difficult Place the owners’ entire wealth at risk The cost of capital can be high, and the withdrawal of a partner might create a capital shortage

19. Pros and Cons of Different Types of Firms A corporation  Perpetual life  Easy to dissolve  Limited liability for its owners  Large-scale and low-cost access to financial capital  lead to slower and expensive decision-making  Profit is taxed twice—as corporate profit and shareholder income.

20. Information and Organization # of proprietorships vs. share of revenue? Why does type of organization differ across industries?

21. Types of Markets:  Perfect competition  Monopolistic competition  Oligopoly  Monopoly

22. Perfect competition  Many firms  Each sells an identical product  Many buyers  No restrictions on entry of new firms to the industry  Both firms and buyers are all well informed of the prices and products of all firms in the industry.

23. Monopolistic competition  Many firms  product differentiation  Each firm possesses an element of market power  No restrictions on entry of new firms to the industry

24. Oligopoly  A small number of firms compete  The firms might produce almost identical products or differentiated products  Barriers to entry limit entry into the market.

25. Monopoly  One firm produces the entire output of the industry  There are no close substitutes for the product  There are barriers to entry that protect the firm from competition by entering firms

26. Name a local firm that you consider to be a monopoly.

27. Name a firm that sells its product nationally that you consider to be a monopoly.

28. Measures of Concentration Two measures of market concentration in common use are:  The four-firm concentration ratio  Sum of market shares for 4 largest firms.  The Herfindahl–Hirschman index (HHI)  Sum of squared market shares for all firms.  DOJ uses the HHI to classify markets.  HHI<1,000  highly competitive  1000<HHI<1800  moderately competitive  HHI>1800  not competitive

29. Measures of Concentration Limitations of Concentration Measures as Measures of Competition  Geographic boundaries  Product boundaries.  Barriers to Entry  Ability to Collude

30. Suppose there are 5 airlines that fly out of Cincinnati with market shares of 50%, 20%, 10%, 10% and 10%. What is the four firm concentration ratio? 1.Choice One 2.Choice Two 3.Choice Three 4.Choice Four

31. Suppose there are 5 airlines that fly out of Cincinnati with market shares of 50%, 20%, 10%, 10% and 10%. What is the four firm concentration ratio?

32. Suppose there are 5 airlines that fly out of Cincinnati with market shares of 50%, 20%, 10%, 10% and 10%. What is the HHI?

33. Suppose there are 5 airlines that fly out of Cincinnati with market shares of 50%, 20%, 10%, 10% and 10%. If two of the firms with 10% of the market merge, what would the HHI be?

34. Measures of Concentration 4 firm CR and HHI for various industries in the United States.

35. Markets and the Competitive Environment The economy is mainly competitive. Has become more competitive over time

36. Markets and Firms Why Firms? –Firms coordinate production when they can do so more efficiently than a market. –Four key reasons might make firms more efficient. Firms can achieve:  Lower transactions costs  Economies of scale  Economies of scope  Economies of team production