1. WOMEN, GENDER, AND EMPOWERMENT

2. RESOURCES Modern Latin America chs. 7, 11 (Colombia, Chile) Htun, “Women and Democracy” (CR #3) Video” “In Women’s Hands”

3. STEREOTYPES Powerless in a macho world Passivity, docility Focus on family, children Lack of interest in politics and public sphere Marianismo (a controversial concept)

4. WOMEN’S INTERESTS Feminine or feminist? Practical interests = position within gendered division of labor Strategic interests = alternative social codes deriving from broad analysis of women’s subordination Difference from U.S. interests in economic equality (e.g., glass ceiling) and sexual liberation; emphasis on distinctiveness of womanhood

5. WOMEN AND AUTHORITARIANISM Compliance: courtship by dictators Opposition: merger of practical and strategic interests Articulation of demands: – Mothers (and Grandmothers) of Plaza de Mayo in Argentina – Arpilleristas in Chile – “militant motherhood” in Brazil – Pro-democratic, left-of-center orientation

6. WOMEN IN TRANSITIONS TOWARD DEMOCRACY Urgency of institutional agenda > concern for gender-related issues Backlog of impatient men Gender identity giving way to partisan affiliation Loss of solidarity

7. SOURCES OF EMPOWERMENT Participation in labor force (23 % in 1970, 35% by 2000) Education (half of university students) Significant share of electorate Desire for change (and attitudes about women’s superiority in selected issue-areas) International reputation (?)

8. Women in Latin American Legislatures, 1990-2010 WOMEN (AS % TOTAL)* Country1990 20002010 Argentina 5 27 39 Bolivia 9 12 25 Brazil 5 6 9 Chile 6 11 14 Colombia 9 12-- Ecuador 7 15 32 El Salvador -- 10 19 Guatemala 7 9 12 Mexico 12 16 26 Paraguay 4 3 13 Peru 6 20 28 Uruguay 6 12 15 Venezuela 10 10-- — = not available.

9. ON QUOTAS To be effective, must be: – Obligatory – Placement mandate – Cost for non-compliance Most congenial electoral systems: – Proportional representation – Closed party lists – Large districts (i.e., deputies per district)

10. VOTING PATTERNS Traditional “gender gap” – More conservative than men – Chile 1999: Right garnered 51% of women votes, Concertación 49%; Right got only 46% of male votes, Concertación 54% – Right is now appealing to traditional family values Women’s issues – Rarely top-priority campaign platforms – Success in agenda-setting > policy implementation – “Women, in order to be important politically, can’t talk about gender issues”

11. ABORTION Central issue on feminist agenda Still prohibited in several countries (including Uruguay and Chile) Common: permitted “if health or life of mother at risk” (as certified by…..) Available on demand: – Cuba – Mexico City (DF, under leftist PRD)

12. WOMEN PRESIDENTS Generation I: Widows – Isabel Martínez de Perón (Argentina) – Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (Nicaragua) – Mireya Moscoso (Panama) Generation II: Self-Made Politicians – Michelle Bachelet (Chile) – Cristina Fernández de Kirchner (Argentina) – Laura Chinchilla (Costa Rica) – Dilma Rousseff (Brazil)

13. Comparisons with the United States?

14. CONTRASTS WITH USA Issues: Feminism and Women’s Interests – Glass ceiling vs. household survival – Sexual liberation vs. domestic violence – Power-seeking vs. pro-human rights – Middle class vs. popular level Social Movements and Political Parties – Stridency vs. incrementalism – Autonomous social movements or established parties – Gender gap in voting – Confrontation with authoritarian rulers – Ambiguities of democratic rule Representation in legislatures, cabinets, executive positions?

15. LEGISLATURES Gain of 35 %, from 14 to 19 % (2000-2006) USA = 17 % World average = 18.6%