1. RESEARCH METHODS IN BIOPSYCHOLOGY
LECTURE NOTES
Based on Pinel, Chapter 5

2. METHODS TO STUDY THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Brain Imaging & Brain Stimulation Techniques in Living Humans
Psychophysiological Techniques
Invasive Physiological Methods
Neuropharmacological Methods
Genetic Engineering

3. BEHAVIORAL METHODS IN BIOPSYCHOLOGY
Neuropsychological Testing
Behavioral Methods in Cognitive Neuroscience
Animal Behavior Paradigms

4. IMAGING & STIMULATING THE LIVING BRAIN
Contrast X-rays
cerebral angiography
Computed Tomography (CT)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Functional MRI (fMRI)
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

5. CT SCANS A computer assisted X-ray procedure
An X-ray scanner is rotated 1o at a time over 180 o
Computer reconstruction
Horizontal sections
Reveal structural abnormalities, such as cortical atrophy or lesions caused by a stroke or trauma.

6. MRI SCANS
A strong magnetic field causes hydrogen atoms to align in the same orientation.
When a radio frequency wave is passed through the head, atomic nuclei emit electromagnetic energy.
The MRI scanner is tuned to detect radiation emitted from the hydrogen molecules.
Computer reconstructs image.

7. MRI VS. CT SCANS Advantages of MRI Disadvantages
No ionizing radiation exposure
Better spatial resolution
Horizontal, Frontal or Sagittal planes
Disadvantages
Cost
No ferrous metal!

8. PET SCANS
A positron emitting radionuclide is injected (e.g., 2-deoxyglucose).
Positrons interact with electrons which produce photons (gamma rays) traveling in opposite directions.
PET scanner detects the photons.
Computer determines how many gamma rays from a particular region and a map is made showing areas of high to low activity.

9. PET Versus CAT CAT scans show brain structures.
PET scans reveal brain activity.
CAT involves absorption of X-rays.
PET involves emission of radiation by an injected or inhaled isotope.

10. FUNCTIONAL MRI Images brain hemodynamics. Advantages over PET:
No injections need to be given
Structure and Function
Shorter imaging time
Better spatial resolution
3-D images
Check out this website for more info on fMRI methods:

11. Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
MEG measures changes in magnetic fields on the scalp surface that are produced by changes in patterns of neural activity.
Advantage over fMRI
faster temporal resolution
Advantage over EEG
greater accuracy and more reliable localization due to minimal distortion of the signal
Clinical Uses
Evaluation of epilepsy: to localize the source of epileptiform brain activity, usually performed with simultaneous EEG

12. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
TMS disrupts neural activity by creating a magnetic field under a coil positioned near the skull.
Disruption of specific cortical locations are produced while participants engage in cognitive and/or behavioral tasks.
This allows researchers to assess functions of specific cortical areas.

13. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY Electroencephalography (EEG) Electromyography (EMG)
Electrooculography (EOG)
Electrodermal activity (Skin Conductance)
Cardiovascular activity
Heart rate (EKG)
Blood Pressure
Plethysmography

14. INVASIVE PHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS IN NONHUMANS
Stereotaxic Surgery
Lesion Methods
Electrical Stimulation
Electrophysiological Recording

15. LESIONING TECHNIQUES Aspiration lesions Radio-frequency lesions
Knife cuts
Cryogenic blockade
Chemical Lesions

16. NEUROHISTOLOGY TECHNIQUES
Fixation, preservation of tissue, sectioning and staining of tissue
Uses of histological techniques
Confirming lesion sites or electrode locations
In combination with neural tracing techniques (anterograde, retrograde labeling)
In combination with autoradiography or immunohistochemistry techniques

17. NEUROHISTOLOGICAL STAINING TECHNIQUES
Nissl Stains
e.g., cresyl violet
stains mainly cell bodies
Golgi Silver Stain
stains whole neurons
Myelin Stains (Fiber stains)
e.g., Weigert stain
stains mainly myelin
For more information on neurohistological stains, visit:
Brain images obtained from

18. ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY TECHNIQUES
Intracellular unit recording
Extracellular unit recording
Multiple-unit recording
See page 114 in Pinel

19. NEUROPHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS Measuring Chemical Activity in the Brain
2-DG Autoradiography
Radioactive 2-deoxyglucose is injected
Animal engages in behavior of interest
Animal is euthanized, brain tissue is removed and sliced
Tissue slices are coated with photographic emulsion and stored in the dark (much like film processing)
Areas that absorbed high levels of radioactive substance will appear darker
Using computer imaging, differences in density can be color coded.
e.g., see page 115 in Pinel

20. NEUROPHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS
Cerebral Dialysis (in vivo microdialysis)
Under anesthesia and stereotaxic guidance, a cannula is inserted into a specific brain site.
Following recovery, a small probe with a semipermeable membrane is inserted into the cannula.
Fluid is perfused through the probe and chemicals in the extracellular fluid diffuse across the membrane and are collected into a sample vial.
The samples are then analyzed using a chromatography methods. (e.g. HPLC)

21. NEUROPHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS Localizing Neurotransmitters and Receptors
Immunocytochemistry
Makes use of antibodies for specific proteins, such as receptors or enzymes.
The antibody is labeled with a fluorescent die or a radioactive element (commercially available).
Brain tissue is sliced and exposed to a solution containing the labeled antibody.
Brain slices are viewed under microscope to identify the regions where protein of interest is distributed.
In situ hybridization
Also used to locate peptides or proteins in tissue
Hybrid strands of mRNA are artificially created and labeled with a dye or radioactive element
Brain tissue slices are exposed to solution containing the labeled mRNA
Brain slices are viewed under microscope to identify regions where the mRNA expression is highest
e.g., see page 117 in Pinel

22. GENETIC ENGINEERING Gene Knockout Techniques
Creating organisms lacking certain genes
Limitations regarding interpretation of knockout effects
Most behavioral traits are influenced by the activities of multiple genes
Elimination of a gene may modify the expression of other genes
Effects of gene knockout may be masked by compensatory changes to other genes
Experience influences gene expression, so effects of knockout may interact with experience in complex ways
Gene Replacement Techniques
Creating transgenic organisms
e.g. inserting human genetic material into mice

23. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR PARADIGMS
Species-common behaviors
Aggressive Behaviors
Defensive Behaviors (e.g., anxiety paradigms)
Reproductive Behaviors
Locomotor Activity
Traditional Conditioning Paradigms
Pavlovian (Classical) Conditioning
Operant Conditioning

24. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR PARADIGMS
Common Learning Paradigms
Conditioned Taste Aversion
Conditioned Escape/Avoidance
Conditioned Place Preference
Radial Arm Maze
Morris Water Maze

25. Operant Conditioning Apparatus

26. Conditioned Place Preference Apparatus

27. Radial Arm Maze

28. Open Field Apparatus