1. ESP Course Design --- Language Descriptions

2. Designing a course is fundamentally a matter of asking question in order to provide a reasoned basis for the subsequent process of syllabus design, material writings, classroom teaching n evaluation.

3. We need to know: Why does the Ss need to learn?
Who is going to be involved in the process? It may not only Ss, could also include teachers, sponsors, inspectors.
Where is the learning to take place? What potential does the place provide? What limitations does it impose?

4. Cont.
When is the learning to take place? How much time is available? How will it be distributed?
What does the Ss need to learn? What aspects of language will be needed n how will they be discribed? What level of profeciency must be achieved? What topics area will need to covered?

5. Cont.
How will the learning be achieved? What learning theory will be underlie the course? What kind of methodology will be employed?

7. Language description
The language description is the way in which the language system is broken down n described for the purpose of learning. They refer to ways of analysing and describing language.
Terms such as ‘structural’, ‘functional’, ‘notional’ properly belong to this area.

8. Cont.
It is therefore, inappropriate to use these terms in conjuction with ‘approach’ or ‘method’ since these terms indicate a way of, or attitude to, teaching.

9. Task:
What do you understand by the term ‘communicative’? What features would, for example, characterise ‘communicative’ materials?

10. Various language descriptions developed in linguistics
Classical or traditional grammar
Structural linguistics
Transformational generative (TG) grammar
Language variation and register analysis
Functional/notional grammar
Discourse (rhetorical) analysis

11. 1. Classical or traditional grammar
Descriptions of English and other languages were based on the grammars of classical languages, Greek and Latin.
These descriptions were based on analysis of the role played by each word in the sentence.

12. Cont.
Languages were described in this way because classical language were case-based languages where grammatical function of each word in the sentence was made apparent by the use of appropriate inflection.
Thus the form of a word would change according to whether it was a subject, object, indirect object and so on.

13. 2. Structural linguistics
Language is described in terms of syntagmatic structures which carry the fundamental proposition (statement, interrogative, negative, imperative, etc).and notions (time, number, gender, etc).
Structural linguistics was applied in the structural syllabus

14. Cont.2
An example of ESP syllabus based on structural precepts is that used by Ewer & Latorre( 1969)
1. simple present active
2.simple present passive
3. simple presen active n passive
4. –ing forms
5. present perfect; present continous
6. infinitives

15. Cont.2
Structural syllabus provides the learner with a systematic description of the generative core of the language.
For this reason, structural syllabus continues to be widely used in spite of critism from advocates of functional, notional or use-based descriptions of English.

16. 3. Transformational Generative (TG) Grammar
The structural view of language as a collection of syntagmatic patternd until the publication in 1957 of Syntactic Structures by Noam Chomsky.
Chomsky argued the structural description was too superficial, because it only described the surface structure of the language, and thus could not explain the relationship of meaning which were quite clearly there, but which were not realised in the surface structure.

17. Cont.3 John is easy to please John is eager to please.
Would, according to a structural description, indicate the same relationship between the words in the sentences. But obviously the relationship is not the same.
In the first sentence, John is the receiver of pleasing, while in the second he is doing the pleasing. Similarly the identity of meaning between an active n passive sentences would not be shown.

18. Cont.3
Chomsky concluded that these problems arose because language was being analysed and described in isolation from human mind which produces it.
He maintained that, if we want to understand how language works, it cannot be viewed as a phenomenon itself. It must be viewed as a reflection of human taught patterns.

19. Cont.3 He proposed 2 levels of meaning:
1. a deep level, which is concerned with the organisation of the thoughts
2. a surface level, where these thoughts are expressed through the syntax of the language.
The grammar of the language is, therefore, not the surface structure themselves, but the rules that enable the language user to generate the surface structures from the deep level of meaning.

20. Cont.3
Chomsky’s work had an enormous n direct influence on the world of Linguistics.
He re-established the idea that language is rule-governed.
He widened the view of language to incorporate the relationship between meaning n form.
For ESP, the most important lesson to be drawn from Chomsky’s work was the distinction he made between performance ( i.e, the surface structures) and competence (i.e the deep level rules)

21. Chomsky’s own definition of performance and competence was narrowly based, being concerned only with syntax. In ESP, we need to take a much broader view, but the basic distinction itself is still valid.

22. Sociolinguists such as Dell Hymes, proposed that competence consists not just of a set of rules for formulating grammatically correct sentences but also a knowledge of ‘when to speak, when not..., what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what manner’ (Hymes, 1972).
The study of language in use, therefore, should look not just at syntax but also at the other ingredients of communication, such as non verbal communication (gesture, posture, eye contact, etc), the medium, and the channel of communication, role relationship between participants, the topic and purpose of communication.

24. 5. Functional/Notional Grammar
Functionr are concerned with social behaviour and represent the intention of the speaker or writerr, for example, advising, warning, threatening,describing, etc. Equated with the communicative acts that are carried out through language.
Notions, on the other hand reflect the way in which human mind thinks. They are catagories into which the mind and thereby language divides reality, for example, time, frequency, duration, gender, number, location, quantity, etc.

25. Cont.5
The move towards functionally based syllabus has been particularly strong in the development of ESP, largely on the pragmatic ground.
Majority ESP students had done a structurally organised syllabus at school, their need therefore, are not to learn the basic grammar, but rather to learn how to use the knowledge they already have.

26. Cont.5
Functional syllabusappears to be based on the language in use which contrast to the structural syllabus showing only form.
Structure + context = function
The functional syllabus however, has its own drawbacks. It suffers in particular from a lack of any kind of systematic conceptual framework, n as such does not help the learners to organise their knowledge of the language.

27. 6. Discourse (rhetorical )analysis
Looking at how meaning is generated between sentences.
The context of the sentence is also important in cerating the meaning.

28. 1. Can I go out to play?
it’s raining.
2. Have you cut the grass yet?
It’s raining.
3. I think I’ll go out for a walk.
It’s raining

29. In each case, propositonal meaning (statement) of the sentence is the same.
The notions in it are also the same (present time)
But the sentence is fulfilling three different communication purpose.

30. In the firts dialogue, a parent could be taking to a child
In the firts dialogue, a parent could be taking to a child. The child is asking permission, n the parent’s reply ‘it’s raining’ acts as refusal of the request.
2nd dialogue, might be a husband/wife.
“It’s raining”  functions as a reson or excuse.
3rd dialogue, “it’s raining”  acting as advice or a mild warning n might take place between friends.

31. The meaning of the sentences change with the different context
The meaning of the sentences change with the different context. Brought by 2 factors:
Sociolinguistics factor: who is speaking to whom n why. The meaning changes according to the relationship between the participants in the dialogue and according to their reason for speaking.
2. by the relative positions of the utterances it precedes or follows. It might be called the discoursal meaning.

32. Example:
It’s raining
I think I’ll go out for a walk.
In The previous sentences, it provides a reason against going for a walk.
While in the reversed example, rain is the reason in favour of going out for a walk.

33. We can identify two key ways in which Results of studies into nature of discourse have been used in ESP teaching materials:
A) learners are made aware of the stages in certain set-piece transactions associated with particular specialist fields. (like in the doctor-patient communication)
B) the second use of discourse analysis in ESP has been through materials which aim to explain how meaning is created by the relative positions of the sentences in the written text. –leading to knowledge how sentences are combined in texts in order to produce a particular meaning.