1. Lecture 2-Building a Detector George K. Parks Space Sciences Laboratory UC Berkeley, Berkeley, CA

2. Brief summary of Lecture 1

3. Brief summary of Lecture 1 (cont’d) A detector is a device that converts incident particles and photons into signals without distorting the original information. Two major physics discoveries led to important development of detectors: photoelectric effect and that secondary electrons can be produced. Detector components include Photomultiplier Tubes (PMT) and Channel Electron Multipliers (CEM). - PMTs multiply the number of electrons by discreet dynodes whereas CEMs multiply electrons continuously. Assemble a million of CEMs in a geometrical array and form Micro Channel Plates (MCP). - Each channel is a pixel, so MCPs can form Images.

4. Schematic of Earth’s Magnetosphere

5. Density of Major Constituents in Earth’s atmosphere

6. Differential Energy Fluxes

7. Typical Oxygen spectra in the heliosphere

8. Measurement Requirements

9. Requirements

10. Detectors and Components

11. Detectors for Space

12. Measurement and Instrument Requirements

13. A Simple Detector for Photon Measurement

14. Imaging Detector Collimator

15. Scintillators

16. Common Inorganic Scintillators

17. Light transmission Scintillators must be able to transmit the light it generates. Generally not a problem with most scintillators.

18. CsI Scintillator

19. Emission Spectrum of scintillators Scintillators produce different amount of light. NaI (Tl) more efficient than CsI (Na) It’s better if there is more light. Why? Directly affects the energy resolution of the detection system. How? Affects Statistics.

20. Absorption in material I o = # incident  h through x x = thickness  = attenuation coefficient X-and gamma rays are penetrating. Need high Z material to stop them. Inorganic scintillators have higher density that organic scintillators. NaI(Tl)

21. Temperature Dependence of NaI(Tl)

22. Entrance Window Material NaI(Tl) is hydroscopic, sealed in vacuum. Transmission of X-rays through various material in front of sealed NaI (Tl).

23. X-ray Absorption in NaI(Tl) 2 mm 70% @ 100 keV 1/4 in (6.35 mm) ~95% @ 100 keV

24. X-ray Absorption in CsI(Tl) Density = 4.51 g/cm 3 2 mm 83% @ 100 keV ¼ in (6.35 mm) ~100% at 100 keV

25. X-ray Absorption in BGO Density = 7.13 g/cm 3 % of incident X-rays stopped in BGO. 1 mm 95% @ 100 keV 1.5 mm ~100% @ 100 keV

26. X-ray Absorption in Plastic Density = 1.03 g/cm 3 Plastic scintillator often used in anti-conincidence part of an experiment to reduce cosmic ray contribution. 10 mm 20% @ 20 keV 130 mm 82% @ 100 keV 98% @ 20 keV

27. Properties of Scintillators (Room T)

28. Maximize photon collection

29. Plastic Scintillator (NE 102) Light emission by various particles Sufficient for A/C application Range of various particles Few mm to stop 2 MeV p +

30. Light emission of Inorganic Scintillators

31. Desired Properties of Scintillators

32. Conversion Efficiency Calculation (cont’d)

33. More Worries!

34. Conversion Efficiency Calculation To compute DE for different energies, use different radioactive sources. Half-life of Sources. How to correct? where A = activity level now A o = original activity level t = time interval since the source calibrated  = mean half-life of the source 1 Curie = 3.7x10 10 dps

35. Summary of important factors

36. Reminder-A simple Photon Detector

37. Reminder-Photomultiplier Tube

38. PMTs Operating principle of PMTs

39. Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) Hamamatsu lists more than 300 different types of PMTs. Different shapes, size, gain, etc.. So many different parameters! What do they mean? How does one choose which PMTs to use?

40. Reminder-Buiding Detectors