1. Human Growth and Development
Chapter Ten
The Play Years:
Psychosocial Development
PowerPoints prepared by Cathie Robertson, Grossmont College
Revised by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan Community College

2. Emotional Development
Self
Goals
Emotions

3. Initiative vs. Guilt Erikson’s 3rd Stage self-esteem emerges
self-concept—understanding of the self—develops
spontaneous play becomes goal directed
attention span gets longer
pride leads to concentration and persistence
guilt is a negative consequence of this stage

4. Emotional Regulation Ability to direct or change one’s feelings
externalizing problems—difficulties arising from child’s tendency to externalize emotions outside the self, lashing out in impulsive anger and attacking other people or things
internalizing problems—difficulties arising from child’s tendency to internalize emotions or inhibit their expression, being fearful and withdrawn

5. Neurons and Nurture Emotional regulation part of brain function
also learned through social awareness
Genetic variations
some people naturally more emotionally expressive
Early stress
result of damage during brain development either prenatally or postnatally
via maternal drug use, illness, stress, or if infant malnourished, injured, or frightened

6. Neurons and Nurture, cont.
Care History
secure attachment = easier emotional regulation
parenting practices
securely attached: regulate emotions, show empathy
insecurely attached: respond abnormally to other children’s distress
ability to modulate and direct emotion essential to emotional intelligence

7. Cognition and Emotions
First step to emotional regulation: awareness of own emotions and the emotional response of others

8. Emotional intelligence—Goleman’s term for the understanding of how to interpret and express emotions
develops throughout life, but crucial in early childhood
amygdala—emotional hotspot in prefrontal cortex of brain that children need to govern if they are to become balanced and empathic adults
parents can use children’s natural attachment to teach them how and when to express feelings

9. Empathy and Antipathy Empathy—understanding another person’s emotions
leads often to prosocial actions
helping another without obvious benefit to oneself
Antipathy—disliking or hating someone else
may lead to antisocial behavior
injuring another person or destroying something that belongs to another

10. Empathy and Antipathy, cont.
Sharing
freely done or directed by others
Aggression
instrumental—used to obtain an object such as a toy
reactive—involves retaliation for an act whether or not it was intentional
relation—designed to inflect psychic (mental) pain
bullying aggression—unprovoked attack

12. Learning Social Skills Through Play
Peers—others of the same age and status
peers make the best playmates
play is most adaptive and productive activity of children

13. Active Play Rough-and-tumble play
helps child develop muscle strength and control
caregivers should look for a “play face” when attempting to figure out if child is playing or fighting

14. Imaginative Play Sociodramatic play
helps child explore and rehearse social roles he/she has seen
helps child test ability to convince others
helps child regulate emotions through imagination
helps child examine personal concerns in nonthreatening way

15. Baumrind’s Three Styles of Parenting
Baumrind’s 4 important dimensions that influence parenting
expression of warmth or nurturance
strategies for discipline
quality of communication
expectations for maturity

16. 3 Styles
authoritarian—high standards and expectations with low nurturance
children likely to become conscientious, obedient, and quiet—but not happy
permissive—little control, but nurturing
children likely to lack self-control and are not happy

17. authoritative—limits and guidance provided but willing to compromise
children are more likely to be successful, articulate, intelligent, and happy

19. Recent studies have found link between parenting styles and child behavior less direct than Baumrind’s original research indicated
impact of child’s temperament
influence of community and cultural differences on child’s perception of parenting
in poor or minority families, authoritarian parenting tends to be used to produce high-achieving, emotionally regulated children: strict and warm can be successful

20. Punishment
Discipline an integral part of parenting

21. Techniques of Discipline
Culture is a strong influence
expectations
offenses
punishments
In United States
time-out is used
child stops all activity and sits in corner or stays inside for a few minutes

22. Techniques of Discipline, cont.
In deciding which technique to apply, parents should ask: How does technique relate to child?
child’s temperament, age, and perceptions crucial considerations

23. What About Spanking? Reasons for parenting variations
culture, religion, ethnicity, national origin
parents’ own upbringing
Developmentalists fear children who are physically punished will learn to be more aggressive
domestic violence of any kind can increase aggression between peers and within families

24. The Challenge of Video
Dilemma for parents about letting children watch television and play video games
parents find video a good babysitter
parents believe video can sometimes be educational tool
Experts suggest parents turn off the TV to avoid exposing children to video violence

25. The Evidence on Content
Exposure to violence great—good guys and bad guys show violent behavior
All good guys male; no non-white heroes
Women/females portrayed as victims or adoring friends—not as leaders
Content of video games even worse than than that of television
more violent, sexist, racist

26. The Evidence on Content, cont.
Children, especially males, who watched educational television became teens who earned higher grades, read more
Children, especially females, who watched violent television had lower grades

27. The Evidence on Content, cont.
Content of video games crucial reason behind great concern of developmental researchers
research shows that violent TV and video games push children to be more violent than they normally would be
computer games probably worse, as children are doing the virtual killing

28. The Evidence on Content, cont.
Developmentalists look at the following to evaluate poor content
perpetuation of sexist, ageist, and racist stereotypes
depiction of violent solutions for every problem and no expression of empathy
encouragement of quick, reactive, emotions rather than thoughtful regulation of emotions

29. Boy or Girl: So What? Male or female—important feature of self-concept
Sex differences—biological differences between males and females
far less apparent than in adulthood
Gender differences—culturally imposed differences in roles and behaviors
more significant to children than to adults

30. Development of Gender Awareness
By age 2, awareness of gender-related preferences and play patterns
By age 3, cognitive awareness of own gender
By age 4, awareness of “gender appropriate” toys or roles
By age 6, well-formed ideas and prejudices about own sex and the other sex

31. Theories of Gender Differences
Psychoanalytic
Freud’s view: sexual attraction to opposite-sex parent
phallic stage—according to Freud, 3rd stage of psychosexual development; occurring in early childhood when penis becomes the focus of psychological concern and physiological pleasure

32. Theories of Gender Differences, cont.
Oedipus complex—according to Freud, occurring in the phallic stage, in which boys have sexual desire for their mothers and hostility towards their fathers; guilt and fear resolved by gender appropriate behavior
Identification
Superego—personality part that is self-critical and judgmental
Electra complex—girls’ understanding they can’t replace mother, so want to be like her

33. Behaviorism
Gender-appropriate behavior learned through observation and imitation
Children learn gender-appropriate behavior by modeling it after that of people they want to imitate
Especially for young boys, conformity to gender expectations rewarded, punished, modeled

34. Cognitive Theory
Gender typing occurs after concept of gender has developed
Once gender consistently conceived, child organizes world based on that understanding
Gender schema organizes the world in terms of male and female
internal motivation to conform to gender-based cultural standards and stereotypes guides attention and behavior

35. Sociocultural Theory Gender values strenuously kept
Many traditional cultures emphasize gender distinctions
To break through restrictiveness of cultural expectations, some embrace the idea of androgyny—a balance of male and female psychological characteristics
true androgyny possible if supported by whole culture

36. Epigenetic Theory
Every aspect of human behavior a mix of genetics and environment
environment shapes, enhances, or halts genetic impulses
Differences between male and female brains
Environmental influences

37. Conclusion: Gender and Destiny
5 theories lead to 2 conclusions and 1 question:
Gender differences are not simply cultural or learned—biological foundation much greater than originally suspected
Biology is not destiny—environment and experiences shape children