1. 12/10/051 The Earth as a Thermal Engine Important Radioactive Heat Sources in the Earth – –Uranium - 235 U, 238 U – – Thorium - 232 Th – – Potassium - 40 K My talk is about possible 40 K radioactivity in the Core Traditionally, radioactive heat production exclusively in the Crust and Mantle of the Earth (Bulk Silicate Earth - BSE)

2. 12/10/052 Experimental Evidence for Potassium Radioactivity in the Earth’s Core V. Rama Murthy Department of Geology and Geophysics University of Minnesota Co-Investigators Wim van Westrenen and Yingwei Fei Geophysical Laboratory Carnegie Institution of Washington

3. 12/10/053 Potassium in the Core! Conventional Wisdom – –Classification of elements based on geochemical affinity lithophile : affinity for silicates chalcophile: affinity for sulfur siderophile: affinity for iron metal – –Potassium is strongly lithophile, hence only in the silicate mantle and crust (Bulk Silicate Earth-BSE) – –No known chalcophile or siderophile affinity Cannot be in the metallic core of the Earth

4. 12/10/054 Geochemical Behavior Recent understanding – –Geochemical affinity depends on a number of variables - pressure, temperature, composition etc. – –Lithophile, chalcophile and siderophile affinities are not fixed Can potassium have had a different geochemical affinity under core forming conditions?

5. 12/10/055 The Core of the Earth The core is less dense by ~10%(?) than pure Fe-Ni metal – –Must be alloyed with light element(s) Required characteristics of alloying element(s) – –sufficiently abundant in the Earth – –alloy easily with Fe Clues from Cosmochemistry, Meteoritics, Experimental investigations, Equation of State Candidates: C, O, S and Si

6. 12/10/056 The idea that Sulfur is the dominant light element, alloyed with Fe-metal in the Core. Eutectic melting of Fe-FeS But, how much sulfur?

7. 12/10/057 How much Sulfur in the metallic Core? A crucial study by Holzheid and Grove, 2002 – –Solubility of S in FeO-containing silicates in equilibrium with a Fe-melt as a function of T, P and silicate melt structure – –S-content of metal in equilibrium with silicate melt containing ~200 ppm of S will be in the range 6-12 wt%. – –BSE Mantle S-content : 250±50 ppm – –So, core S about 10 wt% is reasonable

8. 12/10/058 a heretic point of view – –Potassium can be chalcophile and may be sequestered into a sulfur bearing core – –Significant implications both for the Mantle and the Core + Lewis, J.S., EPSL. 1971

9. 12/10/059 Lewis, EPSL.,1971 MO + FeS = MS + FeO Hall and Murthy, EPSL.,1971 MO + FeS = MS + FeO MSiO 3 + FeS = MS + FeSiO 3 M 2 SiO 4 + FeS = MS + 1/2 Fe 2 SiO 4 Chemical Model of K entry into Core – –In the presence of S in the core – –based on stability and solubility of K 2 S in FeS where M = metal

10. 12/10/0510 A 3-decade saga! Potassium in the Core: “Now you see it; now you don’t!” Theoretical Suggestions K in Core? V. M Goldschmidt, 1930’s?stability of K 2 S - Geochemical Studies Hall and Murthy, 1971behavior of alkali sulfidesYES Lewis, 1971K with S in coreYES Molecular Dynamics Calculations Bukowinski, 1976YES Sherman, 1990NO Parker et al, 1996YES

11. 12/10/0511 A 3-decade saga! Potassium in the Core: “Now you see it; now you don’t!” Molecular Dynamics Calculations Bukowinski, 1976YES Sherman, 1990NO Parker et al, 1996YES An aborted suggestion K in Core? V. M Goldschmidt, 1930’s?stability of K 2 S - Geochemical Studies Hall and Murthy, 1971behavior of alkali sulfidesYES Lewis, 1971K with S in coreYES

12. 12/10/0512 A 3-decade saga! Potassium in the Core: “Now you see it; now you don’t!”Experiments Low P (~ 20kb) and T(< 2000 C) Low P (~ 20kb) and T(< 2000 C) Oversby and Ringwood, 19724x10 -2 to 2x10 -2 at 15kb, 1450 0 CNO Goettel, 1972Roedderite-FeS equilibriumYES Murrell and Burnett, 19862.7x10 -3 at 15kb, 1450 0 CNO Chabot and Drake, 19991.3x10 -4 to 3.7x10 -2 at 15kb, 1900 0 CNO High P(>20GPa) and T(>2000 C) High P(>20GPa) and T(>2000 C) Ito and Morooka, 1993 0.015 at 26 GPa NO Ohtani, et al.,19930.08 to 0.36 at 47GPa NO, MAY BE Ohtani and Yurimoto, 19960.0098 at 20GPa, 2500 0 CNO Ohtani, et al., 19970.24 at 20 GPa; 2500 0 C MAY BE

13. 12/10/0513 Our Experiments Measurements of:Measurements of: as a function of Temperature, Pressure and Composition at redox conditions applicable to core formation in the Earth K Distribution Coefficient, D K Concentration in sulfide Concentration in silicate =

14. 12/10/0514 Unsuspected Experimental Difficulties Murphy’s Law Prevails! – –High data scatter and poor reproducibility – –Lack of mass-balance for potassium – –Potassium loss from graphite capsules – –Potassium loss due to use of liquid lubricants in polishing

15. 12/10/0515 Unsuspected analytical problems! K-loss due to liquids used in polishing Wt% K in sulfide

16. 12/10/0516 Unsuspected Experimental Difficulties Murphy’s Law Prevails! – –High data scatter and poor reproducibility – –Lack of mass-balance for potassium – –Potassium loss from graphite capsules – –Potassium loss due to liquid lubricants 8 months and over 60 experiments later –Double capsules with graphite inside sealed platinum –‘Beauty-polish’ with dry lubricants

17. 12/10/0517 “Beauty” polishing agent - Boron Nitride Powder

18. 12/10/0518 Unsuspected analytical problems! Mystery resolved! Wt% K in sulfide

19. 12/10/0519 Techniques Experimental Starting Material-Fe, FeS, K-silicate and/or KLB-1 Graphite in sealed Pt- capsule 1-3 GPa,1200-1700 C Analytical Electron Microprobe K ± 20 ppm detection Contamination Monitor Si in Sulfide

20. 12/10/0520 T dependence of D K at constant silicate composition Partition coefficient D K (sulfide/silicate)

21. 12/10/0521 Partition coefficient D K (sulfide/silicate) D K as a function of Pressure

22. 12/10/0522 Effect of silicate composition on D K This study: P = 2 GPa, T = 1500 0 C C & D: P = 2.5 GPa, T = 1900 0 C G & W: Polybaric, Polythermal PolymerizedDepolymerized Partition coefficient D K (sulfide/silicate)  Peridotite

23. 12/10/0523 Potassium in Sulfur-bearing Cores of Planets Our experiments unambiguously confirm that K can be chalcophile – –enter the sulfur-bearing cores of planets – –act as an additional heat source in the core Consequent planetological implications How much potassium? – – How much sulfur is in the Core – –Mantle-Core equilibration temperature – –The initial Earth inventory of Potassium

24. 12/10/0524 Some Heuristic Estimates Assumptions – –Composition and Temperature dependence of D K as in our experiments Earth Sulfur content of Core ~10 wt% Core mantle equilibration at 3000-4000 K Mars Sulfur content of Core ~15 wt % Core mantle equilibration at 2000-2500 K Mars Core - 15% by mass of the planet

25. 12/10/0525 40 K Heat Production Scenarios Earth Present CMB heat flux ~ 8-10 TW 40 K Heat Production in Core: 0.4 - 0.8 TW 40 K Heat Production in Core: 0.4 - 0.8 TW 4 billion years ago : ~ 6-13 TW 4 billion years ago : ~ 6-13 TW Mars Mars 40 K Heat Production in Core ~ 1.5 - 4.5 x10 10 W 4 billion years ago : ~ 0.2 - 0.7 TW 4 billion years ago : ~ 0.2 - 0.7 TW

26. 12/10/0526 Additional New Experimental and Theoretical Studies Gessman and Wood (2002)2-24 GPa silicate-sulfideYES Murthy et al., (2003)1-3 GPa silicate-sulfide YES _____________________________________________________________________ Lee and Jeanloz (2003)26 GPa K-Fe metalYES Lee et al., 2003 ab initio calculationYES Hirao, et al., 2005134 GPa K-Fe metal YES K can enter both Fe-metal and Fe-FeS Core

27. 12/10/0527 Additional New Experimental and Theoretical Studies _____________________________________________________________________________ Gessman and Wood (2002)2-24 GPa silicate-sulfide YES Murthy et al., (2003)1-3 GPa silicate-sulfide YES ____________________________________________________________________________ K can enter both Fe-metal and Fe-FeS Core Lee and Jeanloz (2003)26 GPa K-Fe metalYES Lee et al., 2003 ab initio calculationYES Hirao, et al., 2005134 GPa K-Fe metal YES _____________________________________________________________________________

28. 12/10/0528 Planetary Implications of K in Core Additional source of heat in the Earth’s Core – –Substantial heat production in early history of the planet – –Implications for global processes: Maintaining a core dynamo for ~3.5 b.y. The size and age of the inner core Mantle dynamics and convection

29. 12/10/0529 Geochemical Arguments to sort out! 1. 1.What is the significance of the lithophile volatile element trend in BSE relative to C1 chondrite? 2. 2.Condensation temperatures of elements or compounds? 3. 3.Do the BSE estimates apply for the whole Earth or just the Upper Mantle? 4. 4.What is the effect of the chemical and dynamic linkage of the Upper Mantle with the Crust? 5. 5.What is the trace-element inventory of the Lower Mantle? 6. 6.What is the relevance of C1 chondrite or any chondrite when the O-isotopic composition of the Earth is considered? 7. 7.What are the controls for refractory element (Ca, REE etc) sulfides in meteorites and the Earth? V. Rama Murthy:

30. 12/10/0530 Conclusions V. Rama Murthy: 3. A totally independent approach, such as the geoneutrino flux determination, will have a great impact in advancing our knowledge of many global scale phenomena in the Earth. 1. Radiogenic heat is the major driving force of the dynamics of the planet 2. Geochemical and Geophysical models are not yet adequate enough to precisely define the radioactivity of the Mantle and Core.

31. 12/10/0531 Thank you all !

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34. 12/10/0534 Alkali Element Patterns in Chondrites and the Silicate Earth From: Lodders, 1995

35. 12/10/0535 Geochemical Arguments against K in Core! Volatile lithophile element trend of BSE relative to C1 chondrite – –BSE basically constructed from the Upper Mantle samples – –Upper mantle dynamically linked and in chemical exchange with the Crust – –Assumes the Lower Mantle (nearly half the mass of the Earth) is compositionally similar to the Upper Mantle, a question by no means settled by either geophysics or geochemistry–