1. Committee Update Building a visual hierarchy Andrew Smith 30 July 2008

2. Outline Confabulation theory Summary Comparisons to other AI techniques Human Visual System Building A Visual Hierarchy Learning Inference Texture modeling (applications) Future work (dissertation defence, Spring 2009)

3. Confabulation Theory A theory of the mechanism of thought –Cortex/thalamus is divided into thousands of modules (1,000,000s of neurons). –Each module contains a lexicon of symbols. –Symbols are sparse populations (100s) of neurons within a module. –Symbols are stable states of a cortex-thalamus attractor circuit.

4. Confabulation theory (1/4) Key concept 1: Modules contain symbols, the atoms of our mental universe. Smell module: Apple, flower, rotten, … Word module: ‘rose’ ‘the’ ‘and’ ‘it’ ‘France’ ‘Joe’ … Abstract planning modules, etc. Modules are small patches of thalamocortical neurons. Each symbol is a sparse popuation of those neurons.

5. Confabulation theory (1/4)

6. Confabulation theory (2/4) Key concept 2: All cognitive knowledge is knowledge links between these symbols. Smell module: Apple, flower, rotten, … Word module: ‘the’ ‘and’ ‘it’ ‘France’ ‘Joe’ ‘apple’ … Only symbols that are meaningfully co-occurring may become linked.

7. Confabulation theory (3/4)

8. Key concept 3: A confabulation operation is the universal computational mechanism. Given evidence a, b, c pick answer x such that: x = argmax x’ p(a, b, c | x’) We say x has maximum cogency.

9. Confabulation theory (3/4) Fundamental Theorem of Cognition:[1] p(  ) 4 = p(  )/p(  ) ∙p(  )/p(  ) ∙p(  )/p(  ) ∙p(  )/p(  ) ∙p(  )p(  )p(g|  )p(  ) If the first four terms remain nearly constant w.r.t , maximizing the fifth term maximizes cogency (the conditional joint).

10. Confabulation theory (3/4)

11. Confabulation theory (4/4) Key concept 4: Each confabulation operation launches a control signal to other modules. Control mechanism of inference – studied by others in the lab. (not here)

12. Similarities to other AI / ML Bayesian networks – a special case A “confabulation network” is similar to a Bayesian Net with: Symbolic variables (discrete & finite & exclusive state) with equal priors. Naïve-Bayes assumption for CP tables. Can use similar learning algorithms (counting for CPs) Hinton’s (unrestricted) Bolzman Machines – generalized: Do not require complete connectivity (many) more than two states. Can use stochastic (Monte Carlo) ‘execution’

13. Outline Confabulation theory Summary Comparisons to other AI techniques Human Visual System A Visual Hierarchy Learning Inference Texture modeling Future Work (i.e. my thesis)

14. Human Visual System 1) Retina – “pixels” 2) Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) “center-surround” representation 3) Primary(…) Visual cortex (V1 …) Simple cells: Hubel Weisel (1959) Modeled by Dennis Gabor features [] Complex cells more complicated (end-stops, bars, ???) Take inspiration for our first and second-level features

16. Outline Confabulation theory Summary Comparisons to other AI techniques Human Visual System Building A Visual Hierarchy Learning Inference Texture modeling Future Work (i.e. my thesis)

17. Confabulation & vision Features (symbols) develop in a layer of the hierarchy as commonly seen inputs from their inputs. Knowledge links are simple conditional probabilities: p(  |  ) where  and  are symbols in connected modules) All knowledge can therefore be learned by simple co- occurrence counting. p(  |  ) = C( ,  ) / C(  )

18. Building a vision hierarchy Can no longer use SSE to evaluate model Instead, make use of generative model: –Always be able to generate a plausible image.

19. Data set 4,300 1.5 Mpix natural images (BW)

20. Vision Hierarch – level “0” We know the first transformation from neuroscience research: simple cells approximate Gabor filters. 5 scales, 16 orientations (odd + even)

21. Vision Hierarch – level “0” Does the full convolution preserve information in images? (inverted by LS) Very closely.

22. Vision Hierarchy – level 1 We now have a simple-cell like representation. How to create a symbolic representation? Apply principle: Collect common sets of inputs from simple cells: similar to a Vector Quantizer. Keep the 5-scales separate –(quantize 16-dimensions, not 80)

23. Vision Hierarchy – level 1 To create actual symbols, we use a vector quantizer –Trade-offs (threshold of quantizer) : Number of symbols Preservation of information Probability accuracy Solution Use angular distance metric (dot-product) –Keep only symbols that occurred in training set more than 200 times, to get accurate p(  ). –After training, ~95% of samples should be within threshold of at least one symbol. –Pick a threshold so images can be plausibly generated.

24. Vision Hierarchy – level 1 Oops! Ignoring wavelet magnitude makes all “texture features” equally prominent.

25. Vision Hierarchy – level 1 Solution, use binning (into 5 magnitudes), then apply vector quantizers).

26. Vision Hierarchy – level 1 ~10,000 symbols are learned for each of the 5 scales. Complex features develop.

27. Vision Hierarchy – level 1 Now image is re- represented as 5 “planes” of symbols:

28. Outline Confabulation theory Summary Comparisons to other AI techniques Human Visual System Building A Visual Hierarchy Learning Inference Texture modeling Future Work (i.e. my thesis)

29. Texture modeling - Learning We can now represent an image as five superimposed grids of symbols. Transform data set Learn which symbols are typically next to which. (knowledge links)

30. Knowledge links: Learn which symbols may be next to which symbols (conditional probabilities) Learn which symbols may be over/under which symbols. Go out to ‘radius’ 5.

31. Texture modeling – Inference 1 What if a portion of our image symbol representation is damaged? Blind spot CCD defect brain lesion We can use confabulation (generation) to infer a plausible replacement.

32. Texture modeling – Inference 1 Fill in missing region by confabulating from lateral & different scale neighbors (rad 5).

33. Texture modeling

36. Conclusions This visual hierarchy does an excellent job at capturing an image up to a certain order of complexity. Given this visual hierarchy and its learned knowledge links, missing regions could plausibly filled in. This could be a reasonable explanation for what animals do.

37. Texture modeling – Inference 2 Super-resolution: –If we have a low resolution image, can we confabulate (generate) a high- resolution version? –“Space out” the symbols, and confabulate values for the new neighbors

38. Texture modeling

40. Super-resolution: conclusions Having learned the statistics of natural images, the generative properties of this hierarchy can confabulate (generate) plausible high-resolution versions of its input.

41. Outline Confabulation theory Summary Comparisons to other AI techniques Human Visual System Building A Visual Hierarchy Learning Inference Texture modeling Future Work (Dissertation)

42. The next level… Level 2 symbol hierarchy Collect commonly recurring regions of level 1 symbols. Symbols at Level 2 will fit together like puzzle pieces. Thank you!