1. © T. M. Whitmore TODAY Post-colonial or neo-colonial (mostly 19 th C) economic geographies of Spanish Latin America

2. © T. M. Whitmore LAST TIME- Questions? Colonial Economies of Mainland Spanish Possessions (Mexico and Peru) and Caribbean -- continued

3. © T. M. Whitmore Neo-colonial developments — some examples Temperate zone agriculture  Argentine pampas Tropical agriculture  Bananas in C America  Coffee in Brazil & C America Industrial minerals (as opposed to colonial focus on precious metals)

4. © T. M. Whitmore Temperate Zone Agriculture in Argentina Argentina neglected in colonial times except for Potosí supply routes Argentina By mid-19th C it was realized that the Pampas could supply Europe with hides, meat, wool, and grain

5. © T. M. Whitmore Argentine Pampa development predicated on several factors Political stability Expanding market in Europe Indian threat neutralized Available English capital Nearly perfect agroecological conditions Improving technologies Immigration of Italian and Spanish labor by the millions Innovations in land tenure in Argentina

6. © T. M. Whitmore Results of this transformation Physical transformation of pampas Vast expansion of economically useful land area Re-orientation of spatial economy of Argentina Development of an extensive railroad network Development of an extensive railroad network By 1900 Buenos Aires and Argentina in “top 10” world economies Was this “development”?

7. Pampas Development

8. Argentine RR in 19C

9. © T. M. Whitmore Bananas in Central America Eastern (& northern in Honduras) coastal plains best area for climate/soils Eastern Huge plantations developed by USA companies USA corporations more-or-less controlled small countries An expansion of spatial economy of central American countries Little real development Declined 1920s-30s due to disease and great depression new crops on old banana plantations Declined

11. © T. M. Whitmore Bananas in Central America II Bananas move to locations on western littoral to avoid contaminated soils in Emove New disease resistant varieties – but big problems lurk for bananas New disease resistant varieties New crops now in old banana lands (e.g., pineapples & oil palm) pineapples

30. © T. M. Whitmore Coffee in Brazil Large Brazilian landowners Coffee needs several years & labor Ending of slavery => immigration Tenant farming by immigrants Coffee boom initially centered on Sâo PauloSâo Paulo Exploitative of soils Impact on Brazilian population New developments: fair trade coffeefair trade coffee

31. Coffee

32. Photo: Lalo de Almeida for The New York Times

33. Coocafé, a fair-trade cooperative, operates a coffee warehouse in Lajinha.

34. Sam's Club will buy its coffee directly from the roaster, Café Bom Dia, in Varginha. Photo: Lalo de Almeida for The New York Times

35. © T. M. Whitmore Coffee in Columbia & C. America High class shaded coffee mostly different beans than in Brazil Columbia  Mountain locations & mostly small holders in late 1800s  More balanced development than plantations Central America  Western and eastern slopes of Sierra Madres at moderate elevations  Some small holders — especially recently, but bulk is in the hands of wealthy local landowners

38. © National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia

42. Source unknown

53. © T. M. Whitmore SugarSugar in Cuba Ideal local agroecological conditions Near huge USA market Sugar present but not well developed under Spanish USA acquired Cuba in 1898 as result of Spanish American war USA corporations (agribusiness) set up huge sugar plantations, mills, railroads

54. © T. M. Whitmore Sugar in Cuba Results Vast increase in output  50% of all land in sugar by 1930  Labor demand => increase in immigration  Investment in early yellow fever and malaria eradication  USA control of Cuban economy set stage for Castro in 1959 Ongoing reliance on sugar diminisheddiminished

57. © T. M. Whitmore Industrial Minerals Chilean nitrates & phosphates Chilean Bolivian Tin Bolivian Copper, lead, zinc in PeruPeru Oil in Mexico and VenezuelaMexico

58. nitrates

59. Tin

60. copper

62. Oil & gas

63. © T. M. Whitmore Generalizations about 19th C neo-colonial development Few jobs except for small-holder coffee Profit to few (mostly foreign or local elites) Foreign control of development, infrastructure, capital investment, and expertise Development geographically isolated Few economic multipliers At the mercy of international prices Foreign control Nationalization

64. © T. M. Whitmore Geographic Impact of the colonial and neo-colonial extractive economy Geographic isolation of some development Much development focused on the main, often primate, usually old colonial center city — often called the core “Rachet-effect” of development in the core city Patterns persist, albiet changed