1. Pfiesteria piscicida Monster or merely misunderstood By: Erica Hudson

2. Discovery  Pfiesteria piscicida was first discovered at North Carolina State University where it was blamed for a large fish kill in 1988 (Miller and Belas 2003).  ‘Pfiesteria hysteria’, which reached a peak in 1997 (Miller and Belas 2003).  Because of all of this public attention more funding was allotted to research and many interesting things have been discovered about Pfiesteria piscicida and other dinoflagellates.

3. Pfiesteria piscicida  Phagotrophic dinoflagellates that use a feeding tube to prey upon phytoplankton  JoAnn Burkholder proposed a life history of 19 stages  Recent research proposes a simpler life history

4. Toxicity  So far the toxin remains unknown  Effects on humans include: significantly lowers learning and higher cognitive functions, skin lesions, dizziness, headaches, and short term amnesia.  All symptoms disappeared after 3-6 months of no exposure.

5. How can blooms be prevented?  Planktonic ciliates like Strombidium prey upon the P. piscicida zoospores and are able to keep the population in check even at low numbers.  Treating nutrient rich waste run-off before it reaches the ocean

6. References  Fogg, G.E. “Harmful Algae – A Perspective.” Harmful Algae. 1 (2002) p 1-4.  Gordon, A.S. et al. “Comparative toxicity of Pfiesteria spp., prolonging a toxicity of P. piscisida in culture and evaluation of toxin(s) stability.” Harmful Algae. 1 (2002) p 85-94  Grattan, Lynn M. et al. “Learning and memory difficulties after environmental exposure to waterways containing toxin-producing Pfiesteria or Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellates.” The Lancet. 352 (1998) p 532-539.  Levin, E.D. et al. “Rapid neurobehavioral analysis of Pfiesteria piscicida effects in juvenile and adult rats.” Neurotoxicology and Teratology. 22 (2001) p533-540.  Levin, E.D. et al. “Learning impairment caused by a toxin produced by Pfiesteria piscicida infused into the hippocampus of rats.” Neurotoxicolgoy and Teratology. 25 (2003) p 419-426.  Litaker, R.W. et al. “Lifecycle of the heterotrophic dinoflagellate Pfiesteria piscicida (Dinophyceae),” Journal of Phycology. 38 (2002) p 442-463.  Miller, Todd R. and Belas, Robert. “Pfiesteria piscicida, P. shumwayae and other Pfiesteria-like dinoflagellates.” Research in Microbiology. 154 (2003) p 85-90.  Rezvani, Amir H. et al. “Specificity of cognitive impairment from Pfiesteria piscicida exposure in rats attention and visual function versus behavioral plasticity.” Nuerotoxicology and Teratology. 23 (2001) p 609-616.  Setala, Outi. et al. “Predator-prey interactions between a planktonic ciliate Strombidium (Ciliophora, Oligotrichida) and the dinoflagellate Pfiesteria piscicida (Dinamoebailes, Pyrrophyta).” Harmful Algae. 4 (2005) p 235-247.  Swinker, Marian. et al. “Human Health effects of exposure to Pfiesteria piscicida: a review.” Microbes and Infection. 4 (2002) p 751-762.