1. searching1 Searching The truth is out there...

2. searching2 Serial Search Brute force algorithm: examine each array item sequentially until either: –the item is found –all items have been examined Algorithm is easy to code and works OK for small data sets

3. searching3 Code example for serial search // precondition: none // postcondition: searches an array of N items for target value: // returns true if target found, false if not template bool SerialSearch (item array[], size_t N, item target) { bool found = false; for (size_t x=0; (x < N) && (!found); x++) if (array[x] == target) found = true; return found; }

4. searching4 Time analysis of serial search Worst case: serial search is O(N) -- if item not found, have to go through whole array before this can be verified Best case: O(1) -- target value found at array[0] Average case: O((N+1)/2) -- basically still O(N), but about 1/2 the time required for worst case

5. searching5 Binary search Much faster than serial search Works only if data are sorted Uses divide & conquer approach with recursive calls: –check value at midpoint; if not target then –if greater than target, make recursive call to search “upper” half of structure –if less than target, recursively search “lower” half

6. searching6 Implementation of binary search // precondition: none // postcondition: searches an array of N items for target value: // returns true if target found, false if not template void BinarySearch(item array[], size_t first, size_t size, item target, bool& found, size_t& location) // parameters: array is the array to be searched, //first is the first index to be considered, //size is the number of items in search group //target is the value being sought, //found is the success/failure flag //location is the index of the entry containing the //target value, if found

7. searching7 Binary search code continued { // start of function size_t middle; // index of midpoint of current search area if (size == 0) found = false;// base case else { middle = first + size / 2; if (target == array[middle]) { location = middle; found = true; }

8. searching8 Binary search code continued // target not found at current midpoint -- search appropriate half else if (target < array[middle]) BinarySearch (array, first, size/2, target, found, location); // searches from start of array to index before midpoint else BinarySearch (array, middle+1, (size-1)/2, target, found, location); // searches from index after midpoint to end of array } // ends outer else } // ends function

9. searching9 Binary search in action Suppose you have a 13-member array of sorted numbers: 5 14 23 47597182 99108113130 151 172 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Searching for value: 113 Initial function call:first = 0, size = 13, middle = 6

10. searching10 Binary search in action 5 14 23 47597182 99108113130 151 172 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Searching for value: 113 Initial function call:first = 0, size = 13, middle = 6 Since 113 != 82, make recursive call: BinarySearch (array, middle+1, (size-1)/2, target, found, location);

11. searching11 Binary search in action 5 14 23 47597182 99108113130 151 172 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Searching for value: 113 Recursive call(1):first = 7, size = 6, middle = 10

12. searching12 Binary search in action 5 14 23 47597182 99108113130 151 172 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Searching for value: 113 Recursive call(1):first = 7, size = 6, middle = 10 Since 113 != 130, make recursive call: BinarySearch(array, first, size/2, target, found, location);

13. searching13 Binary search in action 5 14 23 47597182 99108113130 151 172 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Searching for value: 113 Recursive call(2):first = 7, size = 3, middle = 8

14. searching14 Binary search in action 5 14 23 47597182 99108113130 151 172 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Searching for value: 113 Recursive call(2):first = 7, size = 3, middle = 8 Since 113 != 108, make recursive call: BinarySearch(array, middle+1, (size+1)/2, target, found, location);

15. searching15 Binary search in action 5 14 23 47597182 99108113130 151 172 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Searching for value: 113 Recursive call(3):first = 9, size = 1, middle = 9

16. searching16 Binary search in action 5 14 23 47597182 99108113130 151 172 [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] Searching for value: 113 Recursive call(3):first = 9, size = 1, middle = 9 Since 113 == 113, target is found; found = true, location = 9

17. searching17 Binary Search Analysis Worst-case scenario: item is not in the array –algorithm keeps searching smaller subarrays –eventually, array size will be 0, and the search will stop Analysis requires computing time needed for operations in function as well as amount of time for recursive calls We will analyze the algorithm’s performance in the worst case

18. searching18 Step 1: count operations Test base case: if (size==0) 1 operation Compute midpoint: middle = first + size/2; 3 operations Test for target at midpoint: if (target == array[middle])2 operations Test for which recursive call to make: if (target < array[middle])2 operations Recursive call - requires some arithmetic and argument passing - estimate 10 operations

19. searching19 Step 2: analyze cost of recursion Each recursive call is preceded by 18 (or fewer) operations Multiply this number by the depth of recursive calls and add the number of operations performed in the stopping case to determine worst-case running time (T(n)) T(n) = 18 * depth of recursion + 3

20. searching20 Step 3: estimate depth of recursion Calculate upper bound approximation for depth of recursion; may slightly overestimate, but will not underestimate actual value –Each recursive call is made on an array segment that contains, at most, N/2 elements –Subsequent calls are always made on size/2 –Thus, depth of recursion is, at most, the number of times N can be divided by 2 with a result > 1

21. searching21 Estimating depth of recursion Referring to “the number of times N is divisible by 2 with result > 1” as H(n), or the halving function, the time expression becomes: T(n) = 18 * H(n) + 3 H(n) turns out to be almost exactly equal to log2n: H(n) = log2n meaning that fractional results are rounded down to the nearest whole number (e.g. 3.7 = 3) -- this notation is called the floor function

22. searching22 Worst-case time for binary search Substituting the floor function of the logarithm for H(n), the time expression becomes: T(n) = 18 * ( log 2 n ) + 3 Throwing out the constants, the worst-case running time (big O) function is: O(log n)

23. searching23 Significance of logarithms (again) Logarithmic algorithms are very fast because log n is much smaller than n The larger the data set, the more dramatic the difference becomes: –log 2 8 = 3 –log 2 64 = 6 –log 2 1000 < 10 –log 2 1,000,000 < 20

24. searching24 For binary search algorithm... To search a 1000 element array will require no more than 183 operations in the worst case To search a 1,000,000 element array will require less than 400 operations in the worst case