1. Genetics Genetics

2. What is Genetics ? Genetics is the study of heredity and variation Examples of genetic variation 1. Domesticated species 2. Human genetics 3. Natural Populations

3. History of Genetics Domestication of animals Cultivation of plants

4. Cultivated varieties

5. Animal Breeds

6. Human Genetic Variation

7. Variance

8. Which suspect matches the blood stain ? Bloodstain

9. Ethical Issues Boot GM out of animal feed

10. Cloning

11. Genetic Journals American Journal of Medical Genetics Clinical Genetics Developmental Genetics Human Molecular Genetics Genetics European J. of Human Genetics Genetics Selection Evolution Nature Genetics Genetika Fungal Genetics and Biology Genome Cancer Genetics and Cytogenetics Genomics American J. Human Genetics Hereditas Opthalmic Genetics Japanese Journal of Human Genetics Human Genetics Journal of Heredity Current Genetics Molecular Biology and Evolution Animal Genetics Molecular Ecology Brazilian J. Genetics Molecular and General Genetics Biochemical Genetics Theoretical and Applied Genetics J. of Medical Genetics Trends in Genetics

12. Basic Concepts of Genetics Nucleus - contains genetic material DNA - genetic material 4 bases (nucleotides G, C, A, T) Gene - functional unit of heredity sequence of 4 nucleotides Chromosome -linear DNA molecule

13. Basic Concepts of Genetics Cell/nuclear division Mitosis (somatic tissue): identical cells Meiosis (germ tissue): gametes

14. Basic Concepts of Genetics Mendelian Genetics (transmission genetics) Molecular Genetics (hereditary material)

15. Historical Notes 1865 Gregor Mendel - controlled genetic experiments (garden peas) - statistical regularity - theory of inheritance

16. Understanding Genetics Relationship between: GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT PHENOTYPE set of genes morphology inherited physiology behaviour

17. Mendelian Genetics Requirements: 1. Attributes of the phenotype that vary among individuals 2. Phenotypic variation caused by genetic differences

18. Genotype and Phenotype The genotype is our actual genes. We cannot see our genes. The phenotype is the physical expression of those genes.

19. Genes - cannot be observed directly Phenotypes - observed directly ** inheritance of phenotypes used to infer the inheritance of genes Mendelian Genetics

20. Mendel’s Experiments Seven Pea varieties “True Breeding Lines” Character “traits”Phenotypes 1. seed shape round, wrinkled 2. seed colour yellow, green 3. flowers (pods) axial, terminal 4. pods full, constricted 5. pods yellow, green 6. flowers violet, white 7. stem tall, dwarf

22. Fertilization Gametes carry the genetic information about an organism. The male gamete produce Sperm. The female gametes produce Eggs. The process in which one gamete is united with another is called Fertilization.

23. Fertilization Mommy Daddy BABY

24. Self-Fertilization When an organism has both male and female gametes, they are able to self- fertilize.

25. Advantages easy to grow matures in a season self-fertilizing easy to cross-fertilize

26. Dominance Some characteristics overshadow others when crossed. This is referred to as a Dominant trait. The unseen trait is said to be Recessive. Dominant traits are represented on charts by a capital letter. Recessive traits are represented by a lower case letter

27. Pure Lines (Homozygous) When an organism is said to be of pure lines, it means their genotype is two identical alleles. TT is the pure line for a tall plant. tt is the pure line for a short plant.

28. Hybrids (Heterozygous) When parents of two different pure lines are crossed, the offspring are called hybrids. A hybrid’s genotype consists of two different alleles. The genotype Tt would be a tall plant hybrid.

29. Homozygous and Heterozygous When an organism has identical alleles, it is said to be homozygous. TT, and tt would both be homozygous When an organism has two different alleles, it is heterozygous. Tt is heterozygous.

30. Punnett Square T T T T TT

31. Cross Pollination

32. Punnett Square of Cross Pollination T t T T TT TtTt TtTt MOM DAD

33. Punnett Square (Monohybrid Cross) T t T t TT TtTt TtTt tt MOM DAD

34. Punnett Square T t t t TtTt TtTt tt MOM DAD

35. Punnett Square t t t t tt MOM DAD

36. Mendel’s Experimental Approach Suitable experimental organism examine few traits in each experiment accurate quantitative records analyzed data formulated hypotheses

37. Genetic Analysis (pea shape)

38. Hypothesis to explain results 1. Hereditary determinants (genes) 2. Each adult plant has a gene pair F1 plants: one gene dominant phenotype one gene recessive phenotype

39. Hypothesis (continued) 3. Members of a gene pair segregate equally into the gametes 4. Each gamete has only one member of a gene pair 5. Gametes combine at random to form zygote

40. Hypothesis

41. Self Fertilization

42. Test of Equal Segregation Hypothesis

43. Three parts: 1. Hereditary characteristics are determined by distinct units or factors. 2. For each characteristic, an individual carries two factors, one inherited from each parent. 3. The two factors of each pair segregate from each other and end up in separate gametes. Principle of Segregation

44. If a plant is short, what is its genotype? It must be homozygous recessive, tt.

45. If a plant is tall, what is its genotype? It could be homozygous dominant, or heterozygous. TT, or Tt. To determine which genotype it is we use a test cross.

46. Test Cross T t t t TtTt TtTt tt Heterozygous Known homozygous recessive 1/2 Tall 1/2 Short

47. Test Cross T T t t TtTt TtTt TtTt TtTt Homozygous Known homozygous recessive All Tall N0 Short

48. Genetic Terminology Genes: hereditary elements Alleles: forms of a gene: A a Heterozygote: Aa Homozygotes: AA aa Genotype: Genetic makeup Phenotype: What we actually see Dominance AA, Aa same phenotype

49. Summary Experimental: 1. Two pure breeding lines 2. Cross --------> F1 hybrid 3. Self F1 ------> F2

50. Summary Results: 1. F1 one phenotype 2. F2 3:1 ratio of 2 phenotypes

51. Summary Inference: 1. Single major gene 2. dominant phenotype 3. equal segregation 4. existence of genes inferred