1. NN Cont’d

2. Administrivia No news today... Homework not back yet Working on it... Solution set out today, though

3. Whence & Whither Last time: Learning curves & performance estimation Metric functions The nearest-neighbor classifier Today: Homework 2 assigned More on k-NN Probability distributions and classification (maybe) NN in your daily life

4. Homework 2 Due: Feb 16 DH&S, Problems 4.9, 4.11, 4.19, 4.20 Also: 1. Prove that the square of Euclidean distance is still a metric 2. Let W be a square matrix ( d X d ). Is still a metric? Under what conditions on W ?

5. Distances in classification Nearest neighbor rule: find the nearest instance to the query point in feature space, return the class of that instance Simplest possible distance-based classifier With more notation: Distance here is “whatever’s appropriate to your data”

6. Properties of NN Training time of NN? Classification time? Geometry of model? d(, ) Closer to

7. Properties of NN Training time of NN? Classification time? Geometry of model?

8. Properties of NN Training time of NN? Classification time? Geometry of model?

9. Eventually...

10. Gotchas Unscaled dimensions What happens if one axis is measured in microns and one in lightyears?

11. Gotchas Unscaled dimensions What happens if one axis is measured in microns and one in lightyears? ? x ? x

12. Gotchas Unscaled dimensions What happens if one axis is measured in microns and one in lightyears? Usual trick is to scale each axis to [-1,1] range ? x ? x

13. NN miscellaney Slight generalization: k -Nearest neighbors ( k -NN) Find k training instances closest to query point Vote among them for label

14. Geometry of k -NN d (7) Query point

15. What’s going on here? One way to look at k-NN Trying to estimate the probability distribution of the classes in the vicinity of query point, x Quantity is called the posterior probability of Probability that class is, given that the data vector is x NN and k-NN are average estimates of this posterior So why is that the right thing to do?...

16. 5 minutes of math Bayesian decision rule Want to pick the class that minimizes expected cost Simplest case: cost==misclassification Expected cost == expected misclassification rate

17. 5 minutes of math Expectation only defined w.r.t. a probability distribution: Posterior probability of class i given data x : Interpreted as: chance that the real class is, given that the observed data is x

18. 5 minutes of math Expected cost is then: cost of getting wrong * prob of getting it wrong integrated over all possible outcomes (true classes) More formally: Want to pick that minimizes this

19. 5 minutes of math For 0/1 cost, reduces to:

20. 5 minutes of math For 0/1 cost, reduces to: To minimize, pick the that minimizes:

21. 5 minutes of math In pictures:

22. 5 minutes of math In pictures:

23. 5 minutes of math These thresholds are called the Bayes decision thresholds The corresponding cost (err rate) is called the Bayes optimal cost A real-world example:

24. Back to NN So the nearest neighbor rule is using the density of points around the query as an estimate Labels are an estimate of Assume that the majority vote corresponds to maximum As k grows, estimate gets better But there are problems with growing k...

25. Exercise Geometry of k-NN Let V(k,N)=volume of sphere enclosing k neighbors of X, assuming N points in data set For fixed N, what happens to V(k,N) as k grows? For fixed k, what happens to V(k,N) as N grows? What about radius of V(k,N) ?

26. The volume question Let V(k,N)=volume of sphere enclosing k neighbors of X, assuming N points in data set Assume uniform point distribution Total volume of data is ( 1, w.l.o.g.) So, on average,

27. 1-NN in practice Most common use of 1-nearest neighbor in daily life?

28. 1-NN & speech proc. 1-NN closely related to technique of Vector Quantization (VQ) Used to compress speech data for cell phones CD quality sound: 16 bit/sample 44.1 kHz ⇒ 88.2 kB/sec ⇒ ~705 kbps Telephone (land line) quality: ~10 bit/sample 10 kHz ⇒ ~12.5 kB/sec ⇒ 100 kpbs Cell phones run at ~9600 bps...

29. Speech compression via VQ Speech source Raw audio signal

30. Speech compression via VQ Raw audio “Framed” audio

31. Speech compression via VQ Framed audio Cepstral (~ smoothed frequency) representation

32. Speech compression via VQ Cepstrum Downsampled cepstrum

33. Speech compression via VQ D.S. cepstrum Vector representation Vector quantize (1-NN) Transmitted exemplar (cell centroid)

34. Compression ratio Original: 10 bits 10 kHz; 250 samples/“frame” (25ms/frame) ⇒ 100 kbps; 2500 bits/frame VQ compressed: 40 frames/sec 1 VC centroid/frame ~1M centroids ⇒ ~20 bits/centroid ⇒ ~800 bits/sec!

35. Signal reconstruction Transmitted cell centroid Look up cepstral coefficients Reconstruct cepstrum Convert to audio

36. Not lossless, though!