1. An externality arises...... when a person engages in an activity that influences the well-being of one or more bystanders with the person engaging in the activity neither paying nor receiving any compensation for that effect. Market Failures: Externalities

2. uWhen the impact on the bystander is adverse, the externality is called a negative externality. uWhen the impact on the bystander is beneficial, the externality is called a positive externality.

3. uAutomobile exhaust uDriving on a congested highway uLoud stereos in a college dorm uA student talking in class Examples of Negative Externalities

4. uImmunizations uRestored historic buildings uResearch into new technologies Examples of Positive Externalities

5. An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes the total surplus received by all members of society. Will the market-determined allocation of resources be efficient? Will the total surplus received by all members of society be maximized? An allocation of resources determined by a competitive market will result in the total surplus to buyers and sellers being maximized. The private gains from trade will be exhausted.

6. QeQe Social Optimum with no externalities... quantity of good 0 dollars per unit Demand (private value = social value) Supply (private cost = social cost) total social surplus

7. When there are no externalities associated with a good, the total surplus received by buyers and sellers of a good will be the same as the total surplus received by all members of society. Thus, maximizing the total surplus to buyers and sellers implies that the total surplus to all members of society is maximized as well. In such a case, the market allocation of resources is efficient.

8. When there are no externalities associated with a good, the price will reflect the marginal value of the good to society as a whole as well as the marginal opportunity cost to society. In such a case, using price to ration the good leads to an efficient allocation of resources. A good’s prices in a competitive market conveys important information regarding the good’s marginal value to buyers and the marginal opportunity cost of production.

9. Social Optimum with a negative externality... quantity of good 0 dollars per unit Supply (private cost) External cost Social cost (private cost plus external costs) Q1Q1 2 6 8

10. For each unit of the good, the social cost includes the private costs of the producers plus the cost to those bystanders adversely affected by the negative externality.

11. Social Optimum with a negative externality... quantity of good 0 dollars per unit Supply (private cost) External cost Demand (private value = social value) Social cost (private cost plus external costs) QpQp QeQe efficient level of output maximum total social surplus A reduction in total social surplus associated with additional output B

12. Externalities result in effects outside the price system. When parties to a market transactions only account for their own private benefits and costs, the external effects will not be taken into account. In such cases, the market allocation of resources will not be efficient. Markets will fail to achieve an efficient allocation when there are externalities.

13. Achieving the Socially Optimal Output Internalizing an externality involves altering incentives so that people take into account the external effects of their actions.

14. Social Optimum with a negative externality... quantity of good 0 dollars per unit Supply (private cost) Demand (private value = social value) Social cost (private cost plus external costs) QpQp QeQe S 2 (private cost plus tax) External cost T T T

15. Achieving the Socially Optimal Output The government can internalize a negative externality by imposing a tax on the producer to reduce the equilibrium quantity to the socially desirable quantity.

16. Externalities and Market Inefficiency u Negative externalities in production or consumption lead markets to produce a larger quantity than is socially desirable. u Positive externalities in production or consumption lead markets to produce a quantity less than is socially desirable.

17. Private Solutions to Externalities Government action is not always needed to solve the problem of externalities.

18. Types of Private Solutions to Externalities uMoral codes and social sanctions uCharitable organizations uIntegrating different types of businesses uContracting between parties

19. The Coase Theorem The Coase Theorem states that if private parties can bargain without cost over the allocation of resources, then the private market will always solve the problem of externalities on its own and allocate resources efficiently.

20. Transactions Costs Transaction costs are the costs that parties incur in the process of agreeing to and following through on a bargain.

21. Why Private Solutions Do Not Always Work Sometimes the private solution approach fails because transaction costs can be so high that private agreement is not possible.

22. Public Policy Toward Externalities When externalities are significant and private solutions are not found, government may attempt to solve the problem through...  command-and-control policies.  market-based policies.

23. Command-and-Control Policies uUsually take the form of regulations: u Forbid certain behaviors. u Require certain behaviors. uExamples: u Requirements that all students be immunized. u Stipulations on pollution emission levels set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

24. Market-Based Policies uGovernment uses taxes and subsidies to align private incentives with social efficiency. uPigovian taxes are taxes enacted to correct the effects of a negative externality.

25. Examples of Regulation versus Pigovian tax If the EPA decides it wants to reduce the amount of pollution coming from a specific plant. The EPA could…  tell the firm to reduce its pollution by a specific amount (i.e. regulation).  levy a tax of a given amount for each unit of pollution the firm emits (i.e. Pigovian tax).

26. Market-Based Policies uTradable pollution permits allow the voluntary transfer of the right to pollute from one firm to another. u A market for these permits will eventually develop. u A firm that can reduce pollution at a low cost may prefer to sell its permit to a firm that can reduce pollution only at a high cost.

27. The Equivalence of Pigovian Taxes and Pollution Permits... Quantity of Pollution 0 Price of Pollution P Q Demand for pollution rights Pigovian tax (a) Pigovian Tax 2....which, together with the demand curve, determines the quantity of pollution. 1. A Pigovian tax sets the price of pollution... Quantity of Pollution 0 Q Demand for pollution rights Supply of pollution permits (b) Pollution Permits Price of Pollution P 2....which, together with the demand curve, determines the price of pollution. 1. Pollution permits set the quantity of pollution...