1. Chapter 12 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Chapter 12 Additional Research Approaches

2. Chapter 12 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Historical Approach Goal: Record and understand events of the past Problems: –New data cannot be generated –Data cannot easily be controlled –Data must be analyzed without clarifying questions being asked

3. Chapter 12 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Sources of Historical Data Primary sources –original documents, physical artifacts, people who were eyewitnesses Secondary sources –textbooks, newspapers, abstracts, almanacs, encyclopedias, bibliographies (some of these may sometimes be primary sources)

4. Chapter 12 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Evaluating Historical Data External criticism –Test physical and chemical properties of items to confirm age, authorship –Test signature, script, handwriting, spelling, and type to confirm authenticity –Check consistency in language use, time- sensitive knowledge and technology Internal criticism –Assess meaning and content of item –Assess value of data

5. Chapter 12 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Oral History - Techniques Taped history should also be writted and edited by primary source Content should use researcher’s notes as must as possible Questioning must be conducted carefully (no leading questions) Interview sessions should be short Topics should be given to interviewee in advance Researcher should be well-read in topic

6. Chapter 12 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Biographical Research Humanizes past Use lots of primary sources Difficulties: –Memory mistakes of primary source people –Inability to interview critical source –Failure to discover critical source –Responses could be biased May or may not be testing a hypothesis

7. Chapter 12 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Epidemiological Approach Descriptive: identify patterns, trends, etc. May attempt to determine causation

8. Chapter 12 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Research designs Cohort studies (prospective studies) Case-control studies (retrospective studies)

9. Chapter 12 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Ten Principles of Causal Inference 1.Strength of Association 2.Dose-Response Relationship 3.Independence 4.Temporal Sequence 5.Persistence 6.Alterability 7.Agreement 8.Consistency 9.Biologic Plausibility 10.Experimental Confirmation

10. Chapter 12 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Strength of Association Relative Risk – likelihood that a group with a risk factor will have a health characteristic in comparison to a group without risk factor Odds-ratio – Estimate of relative risk Attributable Risk – Percentage of cases in the total group that occur in the group with a risk factor.

11. Chapter 12 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Single Participant Approach May include more than one “subject” Baseline measure obtained for each participant, compared to post- treatment score Do not analyze data as group, based on idea that some treatments may work only in some individuals

12. Chapter 12 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Creative Activities Examples: dance, skillful performers, development of novel computer programs for various purposes, gymnastics, development of new piece of equipment or new procedure