2.  Commas are necessary for comprehension.  In order to know when to use commas, it is important to understand clauses.

3.  An independent clause can stand alone.  A dependent Clause needs an independent clause to be a sentence. › Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions › After, although, as, because, if, once, since, etc.

4.  I went to class at 3:00.  Meet me at 8:00.  The doctor’s office was closed.  Why are these Independent clauses?

5.  When you went to the store  Considering the latest developments  Until you begin the task  Sometimes if the pegs aren’t in the right order  Why are these dependent clauses?

6.  I traveled to Florida although I didn’t have much money.  What punctuation is needed?  Why?

7.  I went to the store and I bought lots of groceries. What punctuation is needed? These two independent clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (and). Each independent clause can stand alone.

9.  after how till ( or 'til)  although if unless  as inasmuch until  as if in order that when  as long as lest whenever  as much as now that where  as soon as provided (that) wherever  as though since while  because so that  before than  even if that  even though though

10. They introduce dependent clauses and relate to a noun already named in the sentence. › (That, which, what, who, whoever, etc.) › EX: Sometimes the classes that I want are full.  Is punctuation needed?

11.  Subordinating conjunctions and relative pronouns (That, which, what, who, whoever, etc.) make clauses dependent.

12.  A RESTRICTIVE/essential clause is a clause that restricts the meaning of the sentence. › EX: I looked at the car that had been in an accident and concluded an insurance appraisal was needed. › EX: Please take the package that hasn’t been opened with you to the office.

13.  A non-restrictive/essential clause doesn’t restrict the meaning of the sentence. › EX: The officer, who lives in Lincoln, accepted the award. › EX: The book, which I read last year, is very good.

14.  Restrictive/essential clauses do not have commas around them. › EX: The car that was $30,000 was sold off the lot.  Non-restrictive/essential clauses need commas.EX: The car that I bought, which has GPS, is parked in the driveway.

15.  How to determine a compound sentence Ask: Is there a coordinating conjunction and does the sentence contain at least two independent clauses?  1. You would use a comma with a coordinating conjunction.  2. You can sometimes substitute a semicolon for a coordinating conjunction.

16.  She created the program and she led the team.  I think that the issue is clear it also may have multiple outcomes. What punctuation is needed?

17.  Clauses in compound sentences are often linked by the conjunctive adverb (consequently, however, moreover, besides, nevertheless, on the other hand, in fact, therefore, thus) If they are, you need a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb.

18.  The firm has had a change in management; therefore, we are not sure what we should do.  It is clear that we should fix the error; moreover, we are expected to do it.

19.  Complex sentences contain both an independent and dependent clause.  There may be no punctuation between the clauses, or they may be separated by a comma.

20. EX: Although we don’t have to, we should correct the error. --An introductory clause with a subordinating conjunction is followed by a comma.

21.  Restrictive/essential clauses are essential; they restrict the meaning of the term they modify. No comma is needed.  EX: Schools that let out early are diminishing student opportunities for learning.

23.  Non-Restrictive/essential clauses add additional information but do not restrict the meaning of the term it modifies.  EX: The detective, who was tall and handsome, took down my statement.

24.  Series Commas › Series: A list in a sentence of 3 or more items  Separate by commas,  “and” preceding the final item  EX: Please put the cups, jars, and plates in the cabinet.  CMS—Comma should appear before conjunction.

25.  More on serial commas  Serial comma important when one item includes conjunction  EX: Registering for classes includes knowing your major requirements, understanding the registrar’s rules and regulations, and making your appointment time.

26.  Series Commas and Semicolons When would you use semicolons in a series? › When items in the series have parts that are separated by commas. (Also, CMS 6.21(internal punctuation or long, complex) › EX: Elected to the council were Mark Roberts, 19, a sophomore from Miami, Fla.; Suzanne Idley, 20, a junior from Nashville, Tenn.; and Alberto Greenberg, 21, a senior from Hartford, Conn.

27.  When adjectives in a series modify a noun— › Use a comma between the adjectives but not before the noun. › EX: The newer, more avant garde films are in vogue.

28.  Parallelism--related items share a grammatical structure. › EX: The responsibility of the cook is creating the recipe, cooking the food, and supervising the staff.

29.  When the structure of items in a series shifts  EX: She spent the day visiting all the tourist shops and watched the children on the beach, and then she went back to the hotel for a late lunch.  What will improve this sentence?

30.  Introductory Phrases are usually followed by a comma unless they are quite short. EX: For those with permission statements, the rules are fairly easy. › Whenever you open with an introductory clause, you should consider using a comma. With a short introductory phrase, the comma is often omitted. › EX: After dinner the children returned to the yard.

31.  What do they do? › Show possession or contraction  EX: Dawn’s thesis  EX: They’re the wrong kind.  Common Confusion: › It’s (contraction of “It is” & Its (possessive pronoun) › Plural Possessives: “the companies’ rules”

32. › Remember: The plurals of years, abbreviations and some proper names don’t take apostrophes (Also CMS 7.15):  1940s  FBIs  CMS lists the following holidays as singular possessives: Mother’s Day, Father’s Day, New Year’s Eve, New Year’s Day. Plural possessive is used for Presidents’ Day

33.  A hyphen shows that two words function as a unit. › En dash—used where a hyphen addresses editorial or typographic confusion (CMS 6.80)  Because of inconsistencies (cross section/cross-reference), you often need to consult a dictionary or style manual to see if the phrase uses a hyphen.

34.  7.90 arranges the guide by: › Type › Compounds formed with specific terms  (use of “all”– all out, all-American) › Words formed with prefixes  (minivan)

35.  Noun forms of compound terms tend to be open or solid (no hyphen).  EX: problem solving, bookkeeping  CMS: pgs. 299-300 offers some help, such as inserting a hyphen when it makes for easier reading (7.85).

36.  --Noun forms that are formed by a noun and an adjective are more likely to be hyphenated or solid. › EX: Self-treatment, self-service  But there are exceptions. › EX: patient services  If unsure, check dictionary or style manual. (CMS suggests dictionary first.)

37.  Compound adjectives are hyphenated if they precede the word modified and if they are formed in these ways: › Adjective or noun + past participle  EX: green-tinted glass › Noun + present participle  EX: interest-bearing account

38.  Compounds › With all, half, high, low (low-rise apartments) › With well if they precede noun (well-done paper)  Numerals › Compound adjectives when they precede the noun they modify (two-story house)

39.  When a number is part of a compound adjective, hyphenate it when it precedes the modifying noun. › EX: “four-course meal” BUT not for predicate adjectives. › EX: The road is two miles long.  Hyphenate spelled-out fractions. › EX: two-thirds of the students

40.  Color terms › Does the color term modify another color?  EX: Reddish brown sunset (No hyphen) › Are the color terms equally important?  EX: mauve-brown color scheme (hyphenate) › Is there a combination term that works together as a unit?  EX: black-and-white photo

41.  If unsure about hyphen use, consult dictionary or style manual.

42.  Can show a break in thought, › Or provide emphasis.  Dashes also signal to the reader additional information at the end of a sentence, helping the reader to interpret the significance of the primary information in a sentence.

43.  Em dash— › Length of 2 hyphens w/out space around them  1. Can substitute for parentheses  2. Show a break in thought  3. Provide emphasis  4. Can signal additional information at end of sentence

44.  An em dash—the length of two hyphens without space around them-- can substitute for parentheses, a break in thought, or provide emphasis. › Above sentence –dash substitutes for parentheses.

45.  When parentheses enclose an entire sentence, include ending punctuation— › EX: They finally said (why couldn't they › have admitted it earlier?) that she had been there.  When parentheses enclose only part of a sentence, punctuations goes outside. › EX: Some of the local store owners (Mr. Kwan and Ms. Lawson, for example) insisted that the street be widened

46.  Quotation marks should go outside a comma or period but inside a semicolon or colon. › EX: She told the attendant she was “completely satisfied,” according to her recollection. › EX: She told the attendant she was “completely satisfied”; although, she later filed the lawsuit.

47.  Three spaced periods  Indicate some words have been omitted › EX: The First Amendment provides that "Congress shall make no law respecting... the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances."  Also see CMS: 11.51-11.61.

48.  Three-Dot Method (legal works, textual commentary & works that require frequent reference to quoted material. › Appropriate for most general works & many scholarly works.  In this method 3 dots indicate an omission within a quoted sentence.  4 dots mark the omission of one or more sentences.

50. EX: Some state prison systems apply the policy of risk-group screening for AIDS only to pregnant women—a very small number of inmates.

51.  The project will end January 15—unless the company provides additional funds.  The job will be done—after we are under contract.  Only one person—the president—can authorize such activity.

52.  The important element in the lecture the basis of the final conclusions.  Creating the artwork preventing any mistakes.

53.  I left the field it was too wet.  The program didn’t fix the problem it only made it worse.  Creating the graph presenting it making right.

54.  Indicates the direction the document will take  Shapes reader’s approach to material  Announces topic  Clarifies main points

55.  Doesn’t contain an argument  Sums up  Reflects on  Reaffirms main idea

57.  Copymarks › Show where changes need to be made to make the document correct, consistent, accurate, and complete.  Marginal Notes › To author (au: Correct? › To typesetter/production specialist (comp: set rom)

58.  Are those groups of words punctuated as sentences actual sentences?  Is the punctuation complete?  Do subjects and verbs agree in number?  Do pronouns agree with referents?  Do modifiers attach logically to the word or phrase they modify?

59.  Are words spelled and capitalized correctly and consistently?  Are numbers spelled or in figures?  Is identifying information, such as running headers, in the same place on every page?

60.  Check data including dates, numbers, etc  Check words including names, titles, terms, abbreviations, quotations  Check organizational information—table of contents, index, etc.

61.  Look for consistency in the document. › Verbal (meanings and arrangements of words)  Semantics (meaning). Does the author use one term of something in one place and then a different term elsewhere?  Syntax (structure). Is there parallel structure where you see related terms, phrases of sentences?

62.  Syntax, cont. › Series of steps in a procedure should be worded alike.  Style (word choice, sentence patterns, writer’s voice) › No mixing of formal language with casual language › Shifts in person

63.  Typography consistency › Do parallel parts of a document use the same typeface and style? Are variations in headings consistent?  Layout › Is the amount of space below a heading the same throughout? › Is indentation used for all paragraphs?

64.  Spelling  Capitalization  Hyphenation  Abbreviation  Numbers  Punctuation  Documentation