1. test Physics 202 Professor Lee Carkner Lecture 10

2. Announcement  Tuesday help session moved to SC120 (physics discussion room)  Practice problems on WebAssign and web page  Test Friday  ½ conceptual multiple choice  ½ problems  Equations given, but not labeled or explained  Bring calculator and pencil

3. PAL #9 Sound  Changing medium to get max v  v = (B/  ) ½  Want large B and small   A low density fluid that is hard to compress  Changing medium to get max  p m   p m = v  s m = (B/  ) ½  s m = B ½  ½  s m  Large v and large   Want to increase v by increasing B, not decreasing   Want medium with large B and large   Such a fluid would be hard to move  Heavy and hard to compress

4. PAL #9 Sound (cont.)  Interference from two loudspeakers  To get destructive interference you want the received waves to be out of phase by ½ wavelength  Want the difference in path length to be ½  f = 1150 Hz, v = 343 m/s (for room temperature air)  v = f, = v/f = 343/1150 = 0.3 m  Want  L to be 0.15 m  If L 1 is 4m, make L 2 4.15 m  Constructive interference occurs when  L = 0, 1, 2 …  L 2 = 4 m (or 4.3 m or 3.7 m etc.)

5. Intensity of Sound  The loudness of sound depends on its intensity, which is the power the wave delivers per unit area: I = P/A  The units of intensity are W/m 2  The intensity can be expressed as: I = ½  v  2 s m 2  Compare to expression for power in a transverse wave  Depends directly on  and v (medium properties)  Depends on the square of the amplitude and the frequency (wave properties)

6. Intensity and Distance  Consider a source that produces a sound of initial power P s  As you get further away from the source the intensity decreases because the area over which the power is distributed increases  The total area over which the power is distributed depends on the distance from the source, r I = P/A = P s /(4  r 2 )  Sounds get fainter as you get further away because the energy is spread out over a larger area  I falls off as 1/r 2 (inverse square law)

7. Inverse Square Law Source r 2r A 1 =4  r 2 I 1 = P s /A 1 A 2 =4  (2r) 2 = 16  r 2 = 4A 1 I 2 = P s /A 2 = ¼ I 1

8. The Decibel Scale  The human ear is sensitive to sounds over a wide range of intensities (12 orders of magnitude)  To conveniently handle such a large range a logarithmic scale is used known as the decibel scale  = (10 dB) log (I/I 0 )  I 0 = 10 -12 W/m 2 (at the threshold of human hearing)  log is base 10 log ( not natural log, ln)  There is an increase of 10 dB for every factor of 10 increase in intensity

9. Sound Levels  Hearing Threshold  0 dB  Whisper  10 dB  Talking  60 dB  Rock Concert  110 dB  Pain  120 dB

10. Music  A musical instrument is a device for setting up standing waves of known frequency  A standing wave oscillates with large amplitude and so is loud  We shall consider an generalized instrument consisting of a pipe which may be open at one or both ends  Like a pipe organ or a saxophone  There will always be a node at the closed end and an anti-node at the open end  Can have other nodes or antinodes in between, but this rule must be followed  Closed end is like a tied end of string, open end is like a string end fixed to a freely moving ring

11. Sound Waves in a Tube

12. Harmonics  Pipe open at both ends  For resonance need a integer number of ½ wavelengths to fit in the pipe  Antinode at both ends L = ½ n v = f f = nv/2L  n = 1,2,3,4 …  Pipe open at one end  For resonance need an integer number of ¼ wavelengths to fit in the pipe  Node at one end, antinode at other L = ¼ n v = f f = nv/4L  n = 1,3,5,7 … (only have odd harmonics)

13. Harmonics in Closed and Open Tubes

14. Musical Instruments  When playing a musical instrument you change n, v or L to produce a sound at the desired frequency  Musical notes are related to a specific frequency  For example: A = 440 Hz  Music is the superposition of all of the notes being played at one time  Smaller instruments generally produce high frequency sound  f is inversely proportional to L

15. Beat Frequency  You generally cannot tell the difference between 2 sounds of similar frequency  If you listen to them simultaneously you hear variations in the sound at a frequency equal to the difference in frequency of the original two sounds called beats f beat = f 1 –f 2

16. Beats

17. Beats and Tuning  The beat phenomenon can be used to tune instruments  Compare the instrument to a standard frequency and adjust so that the frequency of the beats decrease and then disappear  Orchestras generally tune from “A” (440 Hz) acquired from the lead oboe or a tuning fork