1. Landscape Ecology
Chapter 21

2. Outline
Introduction
Landscape Structure
Landscape Processes
Habitat Patches and Corridors
Landscape Position
Origins of Landscape Structure and Change
Climate
Organisms

3. Introduction
Landscape Ecology: Study of landscape structure and processes.
Landscape: Heterogeneous area composed of several ecosystems.
Landscape Elements: Visually distinctive patches in an ecosystem.

4. Landscape Structure
Landscape structure includes the size, shape, composition, number, and position of different ecosystems within a landscape
Quantified patch shape by ratio of patch perimeter to perimeter of a circle with an area equal to that of the patch.
S = Patch shape
Increasing value indicates less circular shape
P = Patch perimeter
A = Patch area

5. Landscape Structure

6. Fractal Geometry of Landscapes
Perimeter estimates of a complex shape depend on size of measuring device.
Smaller features may only show up with smaller measuring devices.

7. Fractal Geometry of Landscapes

8. Two components of spatial scale

9. Quantifying landscape pattern

10. Two principal methods for representing spatial data

11. Caveats for landscape pattern analysis
Classification scheme

12. Caveats for landscape pattern analysis
Grain size (resolution)

13. Caveats for landscape pattern analysis
Spatial extent

14. Caveats for landscape pattern analysis
Appropriate landscape metrics - most metrics are correlated - what constitutes a significant change
References - Riitters, K. H. et al A factor analysis of landscape pattern and structure metrics. Landscape ecology 10: J. A.G. Jaeger Landscape division, splitting index, and effective mesh size: new measures of landscape fragmentation. Landscape ecology 15:

15. Landscape metrics
Metrics of landscape composition
Measures of spatial configuration – contagion & patch-based metrics
Software for spatial pattern analysis - FRAGSTAT - Patch Analyst

16. Research tools for landscape ecology
GPS - Overview
GIS - ESRI
Remote sensing & photogrammetry - SPOT - LiDAR - Leica Geosystems - VLS

17. Landscape Processes
Landscape structure influences processes such as the flow of energy, materials, and species between the ecosystem within a landscape.

18. Landscape Structure and Dispersal of Small Mammals
Ecologists have proposed landscape structure can influence movement of organisms between potentially suitable habitats.
Metapopulations: Populations of many species occur in spatially isolated patches, with significant exchange of individuals.
Rate of movement of individuals between subpopulations can affect species persistence in a landscape.

19. Landscape Structure and Dispersal of Small Mammals
Diffendorfer et. al. studied how patch size affects movement of three small mammal species.
Predicted animals would move farther in more fragmented landscapes.
Must move farther to obtain resources.
Predicted animals would stay longer in more isolated patches.

20. Landscape Structure and Dispersal of Small Mammals

21. Habitat Patch Size and Isolation and Density of Butterfly Populations
Hanski et. al. found butterfly density significantly affected by size and isolation of habitat patches.
Population size within patch increased with patch area.
Population density decreased as patch area increased.
Isolated patches had lower butterfly densities.
Population partially maintained by immigration.

22. Habitat Patch Size and Isolation and Density of Butterfly Populations

23. Habitat Corridors and Movement of Organisms
Connecting habitat fragments with corridors of a similar habitat has long been an approach to mitigating the effects of habitat fragmentation.
Haddad and Baum found corridors influenced the movement of butterflies associated with early successional habitats.

24. Landscape Position and Lake Chemistry
Webster explored how lake position in a landscape affected chemical responses to drought.
Lake position in landscape determined portion of water received as groundwater.
Upper lakes dropped more than lower lakes.
Concentration of dissolved ions increased most at upper and lower ends.

25. Landscape Position and Lake Chemistry

26. Origins of Landscape Structure and Change
Geological processes such as volcanism, sedimentation, and erosion are a primary source of landscape structure.

27. Soil and Vegetation Mosaics In Sonoran Desert
McAuliffe showed bajadas in Sonoran Desert are complex mosaic of distinctive landforms.
Found wide range of soil types and plant distributions that correspond closely to soil age and structure.
Soil structure influences perennial plant distributions.
Plant distributions map clearly onto soils of different ages.

28. Soil and Vegetation Mosaics In Sonoran Desert

29. Climate and Landscape Structure
McAuliffe: Soil mosaics consisted of patches of material deposited during floods originating in nearby mountains.
Materials eroded from mountain slopes and deposited as alluvium on surrounding bajadas.
Alluvial deposits gradually changed; dependent upon climate.
Different soils and plant types.

30. Organisms and Landscape Structure
Many studies have focused on conversion of forest to agricultural landscapes.
Eastern NA, many abandoned farms have reverted to forest, thus forest cover has increased.
Similar patterns in parts of Europe.

31. Organisms and Landscape Structure
Hulshoff found forest and heathland coverage changed over time as well as number and average area of patches.
Cadiz Township - agricultural economy converted area from forest to farmland.
Economy collapsed in response to introduction of synthetic fertilizers and inexpensive imported wool.

32. Organisms and Landscape Structure

33. Organisms and Landscape Structure
African elephants knock down tress.
Change woodland to grassland.
Kangaroo Rats dig burrow systems that modify soil structure and plant distributions.
Beavers cut trees, build dams and flood surrounding landscape.
At one time, beavers modified nearly all temperate stream valleys in Northern Hemisphere.

34. Organisms and Landscape Structure
Johnston and Naiman documented substantial effects of beavers on landscape structure.
Over 63 yrs, area created by beavers increased from 200 ha to 2,661 ha.
Changed boreal forest landscape to complex mosaic.

35. Organisms and Landscape Structure
Beaver activity between increased quantity of most major ions and nutrients in impounded areas. Three possible explanations:
Impounded areas may trap materials.
Rising waters captured nutrients formally held in vegetation.
Habitats created by beavers may promote nutrient retention by altering biogeochemical processes.

36. Fire and Structure of a Mediterranean Landscape
Minnich used satellite photos to reconstruct fire history of S. CA and N. Baja ( ).
Landscape consisted of patchwork of old and new burns.
Similar climates with deviated fire histories:
Fire suppression in S. CA allowed more biomass accumulation and resultant large fires.
Small burns more frequent in N. Baja.
Other factors

37. Review
Introduction
Landscape Structure
Landscape Processes
Habitat Patches and Corridors
Landscape Position
Origins of Landscape Structure and Change
Climate
Organisms