2. Inter-organisational relationships Marketing Channels Value Chains Value-delivery networks

3. Marketing Channels Sets of interdependent organisations involved in making a product available to the end-user customer ( Stern and El Ansary 1996) Supplier Manufacturer DistributorRetailer

4. Channels Carry not only flows of product but information, promotion, payment and ownership Offer the suppliers ‘contactual efficiency’ in reaching the end customer (Rosenbloom1995)

5. Make the product available in the ‘utilities’ of form, time and place required by the customer (Bucklin) require members to subordinate their own needs to the success of the channel (Stern) –issues of control and leadership, power and dependency

6. Channel Leadership Control = the ability to influence the way the end product is marketed –price, image, form, availability etc

7. Power can be based on –ability to reward/coerce (economic power) –expertness (technological expertise) –referent power (ownership of brand) –legitimacy (official or accepted status) (Hunt and Nevin 1974, Johnson et al 1993)

8. Dependency Availability of alternative channels switching costs contractual obligations

9. Channel Conflict Goal incompatibility differences in expectations/perceptions roles and responsibilities domains and decision making

10. allocation of resources poor communication - importance of relationships and regular contact between decision makers

11. The value chain All channel members add to the costs and so must also add value to justify their use The VC devised by Porter (1980) to analyse what happens inside companies - where the value is added to the end product Applied by Kogut (1985) to the whole external supply chain (made up of each member’s internal value chain) Marketing is designing and managing a superior value- delivery system to reach target segments (Kotler)

12. The Value Added Chain Terpstra and Sarathy (2000) Manufacture Assembly Retailing Design Components Distribution Marketing Specialisation Where does your expertise lie? Where can you add most value to the product? Which activities should be contracted out? Who can best perform them for you?

13. Formalising the relationship Distribution is too important to be left to ad-hoc transactions Vertical marketing systems –administrative co-ordination –contractual - franchises, co-operatives –corporate - vertically-integrated companies VMS formalise leadership control and manage conflict Commitment

14. Strategic alliances Co-operation between competitors to share –markets/technology/marketing/logistics A wider term than VMS horizontal cooperation and integration a partnership of equals Consortia Joint ventures see Johnson and Scholes Ch 7

15. Network theory Looks at markets in terms of relationships, networks and interactions (Gummesson1988) not just suppliers and buyers in a straight-line channel a complex web of influences on the quality of the product (Holmund and Kock 1995) these influences can conflict with each other

16. Network relationships within the sports channel NGB Minor clubs Major clubs SponsorsBroadcasters Other NGBs WGB Players Season ticket holders Local mediaSponsors Investors

17. Elements of a network analysis Hakansson and Johanson 1992 Resources needed to create the product Actors - firms, organisations involved Interactions - between actors to create.. Activities that produce the product Relationships that develop to ensure long- term commitments Draw a network map of a company’s relationships and identify conflicting interests

18. Systems theory (see Laws 2001) Based on biological, ecological systems each component is affected by and in turn affects the behaviour of the others inputs, processes and outputs Includes interaction between the industry and the host society and environment

19. organic growth optimum size and efficiency decline and decay

20. Inter-organisational relationships What each model reveals Inter-dependent channel members –efficiency Value-adding chains - value, profit Complex and conflicting networks –understanding, trust Organic and evolving systems –flexibility, responsiveness

21. Understanding the dynamics of the industry as a whole will help you understand the needs and perceptions of your client

22. Competition is between ‘networks of value- delivery systems’ (Kotler 1998) rather than individual firms co-operation and alliances can be more effective than competition