1. Recalling Memories Memory is affected by the nature of your engagement with the information Levels-of-Processing Theory

2. Recalling Memories Memory is affected by the nature of your engagement with the information Levels-of-Processing Theory –Consider this experiment: List CAT pie PILLOW TREE Method of Learning stating capitals or lower-case (surface processing) repeating words putting words into a sentence (deep processing) Recall is tested some time later.

3. Recalling Memories Memory is affected by the nature of your engagement with the information Levels-of-Processing Theory –Consider this experiment: Result: Best recall with “deep” processing Worst recall with “surface” processing List CAT pie PILLOW TREE

4. Recalling Memories Memory is affected by the nature of your engagement with the information Interpretation: –the successful use of memory depends on the number of connections that are made between related items and the degree to which these are initially activated

5. Recalling Memories context is critical! –location, physiological state, etc. affect ability to recall –e.g. lists of words are recalled better when recalled where they were first learned Similarities in context (especially smell) can trigger vivid recollections

6. Recalling Episodic Memory Recall is a generative process rather than simply calling up stored data

7. Recalling Episodic Memory Recall is a generative process rather than simply calling up stored data Evidenced by the fact that episodic memories can be distorted or completely false under certain circumstances

8. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect - exposure to information subsequent to storage of memory can alter the contents of the memory

9. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect Consider the following example: –Subjects were shown a video depicting a car accident

10. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect Consider the following example: –Subjects were shown a video depicting a car accident –Then given the following question: “How fast were the vehicles going when they ______”

11. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect Consider the following example: –Subjects were shown a video depicting a car accident –Then given the following question: “How fast were the vehicles going when they ______” –Different subjects were asked questions that differed in the “magnitude” of the final word

12. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect Consider the following example: –Subjects were shown a video depicting a car accident –Then given the following question: “How fast were the vehicles going when they ______” –Different subjects were asked questions that differed in the “magnitude” of the final word –The possible words were: Contacted, Hit, Bumped, Collided, and Smashed

13. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect Consider the following example: –Average estimated velocity depended on the nature of the question

14. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect Interpretation: –Episodic memory can be distorted by subsequent information

15. Recalling Episodic Memory Memory for episodes in life can be illusory

16. Recalling Episodic Memory Memory for episodes in life can be illusory Consider the example in Loftus’ article: –participant was induced to have an episodic memory of being lost in a mall

17. Recalling Episodic Memory Memory for episodes in life can be illusory Consider the example in Loftus’ article: –participant was induced to have an episodic memory of being lost in a mall –Even when told the memory is a false one, the participant had difficulty recognizing it at an invalid memory

18. Recalling Episodic Memory False Memories may arise when details of a crime are in question as in eye-witness testimony or repressed memories of abuse during childhood

19. Implicit and Explicit Memory: yet another distinction The successful recall of episodic memory entails a conscious awareness for the contents of the memory

20. Implicit and Explicit Memory: yet another distinction The successful recall of episodic memory entails a conscious awareness for the contents of the memory Explicit Memory is any memory that is both available and accessible by consciousness

21. Implicit and Explicit Memory: yet another distinction Are all memories explicit? Is all information stored in the brain subject to conscious scrutiny?

22. Implicit and Explicit Memory: yet another distinction Are all memories explicit? Is all information stored in the brain subject to conscious scrutiny? Implicit Memory refers to encoded memories that are not part of the “contents” of awareness

23. Implicit and Explicit Memory: yet another distinction How can we know whether memory is stored/recalled implicitly or explicitly?

24. Implicit Memory Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words:

25. Implicit Memory Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words: Free Recall - subjects can be asked to simply recall and report as many items as possible - these items are accessible as explicit memory

26. Implicit Memory Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words: Implicit Recall - subjects can be asked to complete a word stem with any word that comes to mind after reading a list of words (no mention of testing memory!) __ack

27. Implicit Memory Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words: Implicit Recall - subjects can be asked to complete a word stem with any word that comes to mind after reading a list of words (no mention of testing memory!) But how do you know that information is stored/recalled implicitly? Couldn’t it be explicit?

28. Implicit Memory Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words: Twist - require subject to complete stem with a word that wasn’t on the list - if a word from the list is used preferentially, it was remembered implicitly

29. Implicit Memory Consider the implications regarding the nature of consciousness and the connection between neural activity and awareness

30. Implicit Memory Consider the implications regarding the nature of consciousness and the connection between neural activity and awareness Not all of the activity in your brain generates experience - some is “sub”conscious or non- conscious

31. Repressed Memories Elizabeth Loftus

32. “Derepressed memories” Loftus opens with several examples of court cases that involve “derepressed memories” What is a repressed memory? What is a derepressed memory?

33. Loftus’ position in this article Loftus does not reject the notion of repressed memories –18% - 59% of abuse survivors report having regained access to previously repressed memories

34. Loftus’ position in this article Loftus does not reject the notion of repressed memories –18% - 59% of abuse survivors report having regained access to previously repressed memories What does Loftus challenge?

35. Loftus’ position in this article Loftus does not reject the notion of repressed memories –18% - 59% of abuse survivors report having regained access to previously repressed memories What does Loftus challenge? …That all “de-repressed” memories are accurate memories.

36. High Stakes Survivor of real abuse might struggle for years or decades with consequences and need to confront the repressed memory in order to recover emotionally False accusation could tear family apart and send an innocent person to jail

37. What’s the issue? What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories?

38. What’s the issue? What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories? –reality of the memory is in question if it is recalled under certain circumstances

39. What’s the issue? What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories? –reality of the memory is in question if it is recalled under certain circumstances What is the course of events that Loftus finds worrisome?

40. What’s the issue? What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories? –reality of the memory is in question if it is recalled under certain circumstances What is the course of events that Loftus finds worrisome? Therapist or Popular Book suggests that patient consider possibility of abuse Patient engages in intense effort to recall An explicit episodic memory is achieved

41. What’s the issue? So we potentially have a situation in which someone who is having troubles in life and is seeking answers is told to determine whether or not memories for abuse exist What are some techniques that are used to “assist” recollection?

42. What’s the issue? So we potentially have a situation in which someone who is having troubles in life and is seeking answers is told to determine whether or not memories for abuse exist What are some techniques that are used to “assist” recollection? –hypnosis, imagery, dream analysis, story telling –Loftus presents evidence that such processes may lead to invalid memories or overconfidence in the validity of memories

43. Conclusion: We cannot know with certainty (without corroborating evidence) whether a derepressed memory is true Therapists should engage in probing this possibility very carefully –avoiding suggestive questions –remaining unconvinced without corroborating evidence –being “gently confrontational” to encourage patient to consider the possibility that the events didn’t happen

44. Next Time: Read about Subliminal Messages