1. Linguistics II Syntax

2. Rules of how words go together to form sentences What types of words go together How the presence of some words predetermines others What sequences are legitimate?

3. Word classes Classic “parts of speech” –closed class (grammatical words): Prepositions, articles, pronouns, … –open class (lexical words): nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs How to define word classes –Form –Function –Meaning

4. How to define word classes Form (what they look like) –Distinctive “appearance” –morphological behaviour (what inflections can they take?) Function (what they do) –What other words do they co-occur with? Meaning (what they mean) –E.g. word which names something, doing word, word which describes a quality

5. How to define word classes Structuralism: substitution classes The rather young man walked slowly down the street The very young man walked slowly down the street The very old man walked slowly down the street That rather young man walked slowly down the street That rather young woman walked slowly down the street That rather young woman ran slowly down the street That rather young woman ran quickly down the street That rather young woman ran quickly up the street

6. How to define word classes Structuralism: constituents The man walked slowly down the street The old man walked slowly down the street The very old man walked slowly down the street He walked slowly down the street He walked slowly there The very old man walked slowly down the street He will walk slowly there

7. How to define word classes Structuralism: constituents The man walked slowly down the street The old man walked slowly down the street The very old man walked slowly down the street He walked slowly down the street He walked slowly there NP He will walk slowly there Verb group AdjP AdvP

8. Grammar Tries to capture the range of possible sentences in “rules” Most common type is a “context-free grammar” using a “rewrite rule formalism” (We’ll explain “context-free” later)

9. Simple grammar S → NP VP S → NP VP adv NP → det n NP → det AdjG n NP → det n PP NP → det AdjG n PP PP → prep NP VP → v VP → v NP VP → v NP PP VP → v NP VP → v PP AdjG → adj AdjG → adv adj Lexicon det → {the,this,these,a,an} n → {man,girl,men,girls,apple,street,bowl} prep → {with,to,from,in} v → {eat,eats,ate,speak,speaks,spoke,come,comes,came} adj → {big,old,pretty,delicious} adv → {very,rather,quickly}

10. Simple grammar Notice that rules always have only one symbol on the left-hand side, any number of symbols on the right Terminal and non-terminal symbols Rule could be simplified with some additional notation, e.g. brackets to show optionality –NP → det (AdjG) n (PP)

11. Tree structures boy S NPVP detnvPP prepNP detn thetospokethegirl

12. Tree structures boy S NP VP detnv PP prep NP detn thetospokethegirl

13. Simple grammar Notice that the rules (despite the direction of the arrow) can be used to produce strings (starting from a left-hand side) or to verify that a given string is grammatical (and to say what its structure is) What sentences does the grammar account for? The grammar generates some strings which we judge to be ungrammatical. Why?

14. Subcategorization One way to solve overgeneration would be to have more specific categories, e.g. –VP → vitr –VP → vtr NP Not so attractive, because it would lead to duplication of many rules, and loss of generalization As a compromise, rules can have additional conditions in the form of features

15. Simple grammar with features S → NP[num=X] VP[num=X] NP[num=X] → det[num=X] n[num=X] NP[num=X] → det[num=X] AdjG n[num=X] VP[num=X] → v[num=X,type=itr] VP[num=X] → v[num=X,type=tr] NP etc Lexicon det[num=sing] → {the,this,a,an} det[num=plur] → {the,these} n[num=sing] → {man,girl,apple,street,bowl} n[num=plur] → {men,girls} v[num=sing,type=itr]→ {eats,ate,speaks,spoke, comes,came} v[num=plur,type=itr] → {eat,ate,speak,spoke,come,came} v[num=sing,type=tr] → {eats,ate} v[num=plur,type=tr] → {eat,ate}

16. Grammatical functions Context-free grammar defines constituency and structure … … but says nothing about function Sentence-level functions are things like subject, object Within noun-phrases: determiners, modifiers In each constituent, one element may be identified as the head

17. Complements and adjuncts Consider: The man smashed the vase with a hammer yesterday by accident. ‘Complements’ are arguments closely connected to the verb, without which the sentence is ungrammatical ‘Adjuncts’ add meaning to the proposition as a whole, and are generally optional

18. Complements Predictable from (or definitive of) the verb’s ‘subcategorization frame’ May be compulsory or optional Verb specifies its complements in form, function and content –Form: NP, PP, that-S, infinitive, … –Function: subject, object, prep-obj, … –Content: syntactic or semantic features

19. Word order Grammar defines word-order Globally, languages can be classified according to basic word-order: –SVO (verb-medial, eg English) –SOV (verb-final, eg Hindi, Japanese, German) –VSO (verb-initial, eg Arabic, Welsh) –these are the most common SVO also means typical NP is det n mod, “verb- final” actually means “head-final”, etc.

20. Word order Some languages have “free word-order” though few are completely free, and choice of word- order usually carries pragmatic significance; Finnish said to be completely free word-order Many allow “scrambling”, eg Japanese, German have free word-order as long as verb is final Word-order often indicates grammatical function (eg English), so free word-order languages must compensate, usually with lots of inflectional morphology