1. Java I/O classes – case study in an OO library Flexible and somewhat slick, but a bit of a mess

2. Java classes for doing i/o  Includes file i/o, memory i/o, socket i/o, inter- process (pipes), etc.  All stored in package java.io  Excellent example of OO design –Very general and scaleable  Unfortunately, also obfuscates simple tasks.  How to proceed –Understand basic design –Create some libraries to do common tasks

3. InputStream/OutputStream  Start by studying the java.io.InputStream and java.io.OutputStream APIjava.io.InputStream java.io.OutputStream  These are base class for performing all binary i/o  Note that these classes are abstract each with a single abstract method –abstract int read() –abstract void write(int)  Concrete subclasses must provide implementation of read/write that can get/put a single byte to/from the relevant source

4. Concrete subclasses of InputStream/OutputStream  Since InputStream/OutputStream are abstract, they cannot be used to create objects (of course, they can be used for typing).  A very common non-abstract subclass is FileOutputStream/FileInputStream.  These can be used in a simple way to do the most basic byte-based file io

5. Example with FileInputStream /* class example DataInput1.java */ /* assumes each char is one byte -- dangerous import java.io.FileInputStream; public class DataInput1{ public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{ String file = args[0]; int input; FileInputStream fin = new FileInputStream(file); while ( (input = fin.read()) != -1){ System.out.print((char) input); }

6. Example with FileOutputStream /* class example DataOutput1.java */ /* assumes each char is a single byte */ import java.io.FileOutputStream; public class DataOutput1{ public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{ String file = args[0]; String output = "Hello World"; FileOutputStream fout = new FileOutputStream(file); char[] outputAsChars = output.toCharArray(); for (int i = 0; i < outputAsChars.length; ++i) fout.write(outputAsChars[i]); }

7. Higher-level functionality  FileInputStream and FileOuputStream allow you to do pretty much any file i/o at a very low level.  However, this is too low-level for Java.  Java provides many more libraries to read/write higher-level constructs: –characters –Strings –native datatypes –arrays –arbitrary objects (serialization)

8. Decorator Pattern  These capabilities are added using a design called the Decorator Pattern.  InputStream/OutputStream instances are passed to a wrapper or decorator class that uses them and adds to their functionality.  For example, floating point numbers can be read from a file by chaining together a FileInputStream and another class that assembles bytes into portable floating point.

9. Purpose of Decorator  Best way to think of this is as follows: –There are two important issues when constructing an i/o library Where the i/o is going (file, etc). How the data is represented (String, native type, etc.) –Rather than create a class for each combination, Decorator classes allow you to mix and match, augment functionality of base classes. –This is a bit confusing but is very flexible. –Decotators can also add other capabilities, such as peek ahead, push back, write line number, etc.

10. Decorator Pattern

11. Java i/o Decorator Classes  All Java i/o decorator classes inherit from FilterInputStream and FilterOutputStream  Look at the api for these classes and note a few things: –They wrap instances of InputStream/OutputStream respectively. –They inherit from InputStream/OutputStream respectively  This is an odd inheritence hierarchy but is necessary to ensure that the FilterStreams support the same interface as the underlying class.

12. More on Filter Streams  Easiest way to think of the filter streams as wrapping an underlying class which they augment the functionality of. Consider the respective constructors –FilterInputStream(InputStream in); –FilterOutputStream(OutputStream out);  In each case, the FilterStreams use an underlying presumably simpler inputstream and augment its functionality.

13. Some FilterStream examples to clarify this  Perhaps most common FilterInputStream is DataInputStream.  Study the API and be sure you understand the inheritance hierarchy  DataInputStream stores an InputStream and uses this to do higher-level i/o –readInt, readDouble, etc.  DataOutputStream is analogous

14. Example of DataInputStream /* DataInputStream2 example in course examples */ import java.io.DataOutputStream; import java.io.FileOutputStream; public class DataOutput2{ public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{ String file = args[0]; double[] data = {1.1,1.2,1.3,1.4,1.5}; DataOutputStream dout = new DataOutputStream (new FileOutputStream(file)); for (int i = 0; i < data.length; ++i){ dout.writeDouble(data[i]); } dout.close();}}

15. Example of DataInputStream /* DataOutput2 example in course examples */ import java.io.DataInputStream; import java.io.FileInputStream; import java.io.EOFException; public class DataInput2{ public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{ String file = args[0]; DataInputStream din = new DataInputStream(new FileInputStream(file)); double data; try{ while (true){ data = din.readDouble(); System.out.println(data); } catch (EOFException eofe){} din.close();}}

16. Other Decorators  Another common set of decorator classes is BufferedInputStream and BufferedOutputStream.  Note that java.util.Scanner is a new and simpler alternative for a lot of high-level parsing tasks.  These augment the functionality of the underlying stream by providing system buffering for higher- performance i/o  They also add support for the mark method.  Examples on next slide (notice how these classes can be multiply chained together in various ways.

17. BufferedInputStream Example import java.io.*; / public class DataInput3{ public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{ String file = args[0]; DataInputStream din = new DataInputStream (new BufferedInputStream (new FileInputStream(file))); double data; /* need an exception to know when end of file is hit */ try{ while (true){ data = din.readDouble(); System.out.println(data); } catch (EOFException eofe){} din.close();}}

18. BufferedOutputStream example import java.io.BufferedOutputStream; import java.io.DataOutputStream; import java.io.FileOutputStream; public class DataOutput3{ public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{ String file = args[0]; double[] data = {1.1,1.2,1.3,1.4,1.5}; DataOutputStream dout = new DataOutputStream (new BufferedOutputStream (new FileOutputStream(file))); for (int i = 0; i < data.length; ++i){ dout.writeDouble(data[i]); } dout.close();}}

19. Other output streams  FileOutputStream is probably the most common.  However, note that we could replace FileOutputStream with another Outputstream in these examples.  In that case, the same decorated or undecorated data would be sent to some other device.  Good example of this is thread communicatoin, memory i/o, and socket i/o (using Socket class).  I strongly encourage you to familiarize yourself with these classes.

20. Character-based i/o Reader and Writer classes

21. Reader/Writer  Java maintains a second class hierarchy for performing higher-level character-based i/o.  The two base classes in this case are –java.io.Reader –java.io.Writer  Study the API for these classes.  Very similar to InputStream/OutputStream  Here I’ll show how to do some common i/o tasks as examples

22. FileWriter Example /* example Writer1.java in course examples */ /* using a simple FileWriter for String-based i/o */ import java.io.FileWriter; public class Writer1{ public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{ String file = args[0]; String output = "Hello World!"; FileWriter fw = new FileWriter(file); fw.write(output); fw.close(); }

23. Reading lines from stdin import java.io.BufferedReader; import java.io.InputStreamReader; public class Reader1{ public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{ /* convert System.in, which is an InputStream, to a Reader by wrapping in InputStreamReader, then wrap everything in BufferedReader */ String input; BufferedReader bin = new BufferedReader (new InputStreamReader (System.in)); while ( (input = bin.readLine()) != null){ System.out.println("you typed " + input); }}} converts an InputStream to a Reader

24. Reading by line from file import java.io.BufferedReader; /*Reader2.java */ import java.io.InputStreamReader; import java.io.FileInputStream; public class Reader2{ public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{ /* convert a FileInputStream, which is an InputStream, to a Reader by wrapping in InputStreamReader, then wrap everything in BufferedReader and call the readLine method to get a line at a time */ String input; String file = args[0]; BufferedReader bin = new BufferedReader (new InputStreamReader (new FileInputStream(file))); while ( (input = bin.readLine()) != null){ System.out.println(input); } }}

25. Exercise  Study the jdk API for GZIPOutputStream and GZIPInputStream. Write a program that reads and writes gzip files.

26. Serialization  Objects can be written to streams also. This process is known as serialization.  This is a huge convenience compared with having to marshal and unmarshal iv’s.  But the issue is even deeper – how are methods represented, objects that contain objects as iv’s, etc.  Java takes care of all of this with a very nice serialization interface.

27. Serialization classes  Relevant classes –java.io.ObjectInputStream –java.io.ObjectOutputStream  Note that these required an underlying Input/OutputStream to do their work.  For a class to be serializable, it also must implement the Serializable interface (no methods).  Finally, a class-scope variable can be declared as transient, meaning that it is ignored during serialization.

28. Serialization Example /* simple example of Serialization -- writing an object directly to an OutputStream without having to marshal and unmarshal */ import java.io.*; public class Serialization{ public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{ String flag = args[0]; String file = args[1]; Currency c = new Currency("US Dollar", "USD“, 10, 5); Currency d; if (flag.equals("-w")){ ObjectOutputStream out = new ObjectOutputStream(new FileOutputStream(new File(file))); out.writeObject(c); } else if (flag.equals("-r")){ ObjectInputStream in = new ObjectInputStream(new FileInputStream(new File(file))); System.out.println("Reading serialized object"); d = (Currency) in.readObject(); }}}

29. Related Topics  java.io.File class –Very nice. Many methods for portably manipulating files  java.io.Socket class –Provides Input/OutputStreams for communication across ports of different computers  PrintWriter class (e.g. println method)  Writing zip files, jar files, etc.  java rmi: Remote Method Invocation: –DO’s on top of serialization

30. Suggested Readings  Eckel’s detailed section on i/o  Patterns in Java, A Catalog of Reusable Design Patterns Illustratred with UML, Mark Grand, Wiley Press.  Design Patterns, Elements of Reusable Object-Oriented Software, Gamma et al.

31. Java Exceptions

32. Intro to Exceptions  What are exceptions? –Events that occur during the execution of a program that interrupt the normal flow of control.  One technique for handling Exceptions is to use return statements in method calls.  This is fine, but java provides a much more general and flexible formalism that forces programmers to consider exceptional cases.

33. Exception Class hierarchy Object Exception Error Throwable NullPointerException RuntimeExceptionmany IndexOutOfBounds must handle may handle too serious to catch

34. Exception Handling Basics  Three parts to Exception handling 1. claiming exception 2. throwing exception 3. catching exception  A method has the option of throwing one or more exceptions when specified conditions occur. This exception must be claimed by the method. Another method calling this method must either catch or rethrow the exception. (unless it is a RuntimeException)

35. Claiming Exceptions  Method declaration must specify every exception that the method potentially throws MethodDeclaration throws Exception1, Exception2,..., ExceptionN  Exceptions themselves are concrete subclasses of Throwable and must be defined and locatable in regular way.

36. Throwing Exception  To throw an Exception, use the throw keyword followed by an instance of the Exception class void foo() throws SomeException{ if (whatever) {...} else{ throw new SomeException(...)}  We’ll talk about passing data via the Exception constructor soon.  Note that if a method foo has a throw clause within it, that the Exception that is thrown (or one of its superclasses) must be claimed after the signature.

37. Catching Exceptions  The third piece of the picture is catching exceptions.  This is what you will do with most commonly, since many of java’s library methods are defined to throw one or more runtime exception.  Catching exceptions: –When a method is called that throws and Exception e.g SomeException, it must be called in a try-catch block: try{ foo(); } catch(SomeException se){...}

38. Catching Exceptions, cont.  Note that if a method throws an Exception that is NOT a RuntimeException, you must do one of two things: –try-catch it (often called handling it) –rethrow it  In the latter case, responsibility then moves up the calling chain to handle it, and so on all the way up to main.

39. More on try-catch The general form of the try-catch structure is: try{ /* any number of lines of code that call any number of methods with any thrown Exceptions */ } catch(Exception1 e1){ /* do anything you want here e.g. change value and try again. print error and quit print stacktrace */ catch (Exception2 e2){ /* any number of exceptions can be handled... */ }

40. Example1 import java.io.*; public class Exception1{ public static void main(String[] args){ InputStream f; try{ f = new FileInputStream("foo.txt"); } catch(FileNotFoundException fnfe){ System.out.println(fnfe.getMessage()); }

41. Example2 import java.io.*; public class Exception2{ public static void main(String[] args){ InputStream fin; try{ fin = new FileInputStream("foo.txt"); int input = fin.read(); } catch(FileNotFoundException fnfe){ System.out.println(fnfe.getMessage()); } catch(IOException ioe){ System.out.println(ioe.getMessage()); } }}

42. import java.io.*; public class Exception2{ public static void main(String[] args){ InputStream fin; try{ fin = new FileInputStream("foo.txt"); int input = fin.read(); } catch(FileNotFoundException fnfe){ System.out.println(fnfe.getMessage()); } catch(IOException ioe){ System.out.println(ioe.getMessage()); }

43. Recommendations  Do not use Exceptions to handle normal conditions in the program that can be checked with if statements. For example: –to find the end of an array –to check if an object is null  See other commented examples in course notes.

44. Creating your own Exceptions  You can follow this procedure exactly when creating your own Exception.  Create a class that subclasses Exception (or RuntimeException).  You may also add functionality so that a relevant message is stored when the error is thrown, and any other customized functionality you choose.  See Exception5.java example

45. Overriding Object Methods

46. The Object Class  Every java class has Object as its superclass and thus inherits the Object methods.  Object is a non-abstract class  Many Object methods, however, have implementations that aren’t particularly useful in general  In most cases it is a good idea to override these methods with more useful versions.  In other cases it is required if you want your objects to correctly work with other class libraries.

47. Some Object class methods  Object methods of interest: –clone –equals –hashcode –toString –finalize  Other object methods –getClass –wait, notify, notifyAll (relevant for threaded programming)

48. Clone method  Recall that the “=“ operator simply copies Object references. e.g., >> Student s1 = new Student(“Smith”, Jim, 3.13); >> Student s2 = s1; >> s1.setGPA(3.2); >> System.out.println(s2.getGPA()); 3.2  What if we want to actually make a copy of an Object?  Most elegant way is to use the clone() method inherited from Object. Student s2 = (Student) s1.clone();

49. Subtleties of clone() method  First, note that the clone method is protected in the Object class.  This means that it is protected for subclasses as well.  Hence, it cannot be called from within an Object of another class and package.  To use the clone method, you must override in your subclass and upgrade visibility to public.

50. More subtleties of clone  Also, any class that uses clone must implement the Cloneable interface.  This is a bit different from other interfaces that we’ve seen.  There are no methods; rather, it is used just as a marker of your intent.  The method that needs to be implemented is inherited from Object.

51. More clone() issues  Finally, clone throws a CloneNotSupportedException.  This is thrown if your class is not marked Cloneable.  This is all a little odd but you must handle this in subclass.

52. Steps for cloning  To reiterate, if you would like objects of class C to support cloning, do the following: –implement the Cloneable interface –override the clone method with public access privileges –call super.clone() –Handle CloneNotSupported Exception.  This will get you default cloning, but more subtleties still lurk.

53. Shallow Copies  We haven’t yet said what the default clone() method does.  By default, clone makes a shallow copy of all iv’s in a class.  Shallow copy means that all native datatype iv’s are copied in regular way, but iv’s that are objects are not recursed upon – that is, references are copied.  This is not what you typically want.  Must override clone explicitly clone object iv’s!

54. Immutable Objects  A special class of Objects are called immutable because their state cannot be changed once set.  Common examples are String, Integer, etc.  Immutable object simplify programming in certain instances, such as when writing thread safe code.  They also simplify cloning, since an object that cannot be changed doesn’t really need to be deep- copied.  See ShallowCopy2.java in course examples

55. Deep Copies  For deep copies that recurse through the object iv’s, you have to do some more work.  super.clone() is first called to clone the first level of iv’s.  Returned cloned object’s object fields are then accessed one by one and clone method is called for each.  See DeepClone.java example

56. Additional clone() properties  Note that the following are typical, but not strictly required: –x.clone() != x; –x.clone().getClass() == x.getClass(); – x.clone().equals(x);  Finally, though no one really cares, Object does not support clone();

57. toString() method  The Object method String toString(); is intended to return a readable textual representation of the object upon which it is called. This is great for debugging!  Best way to think of this is using a print statement. If we execute: System.out.println(someObject); we would like to see some meaningful info about someObject, such as values of iv’s, etc.

58. default toString()  By default toString() prints total garbage that no one is interested in getClass().getName() + '@' + Integer.toHexString(hashCode())  By convention, print simple formatted list of field names and values (or some important subset).  The intent is not to overformat.  Typically used for debugging.  Always override toString()!

59. equals() method  Recall that boolean == method compares when applied to object compares references.  That is, two object are the same if the point to the same memory.  Since java does not support operator overloading, you cannot change this operator.  However, the equals method of the Object class gives you a chance to more meaningful compare objects of a given class.

60. equals method, cont  By default, equals(Object o) does exactly what the == operator does – compare object references.  To override, simply override method with version that does more meaningful test, ie compares iv’s and returns true if equal, false otherwise.  See Equals.java example in course notes.

61. equals subtleties  As with any method that you override, to do so properly you must obey contracts that go beyond interface matching.  With equals, the extra conditions that must be met are discussed on the next slide:

62. equals contract  It is reflexive: for any reference value x, x.equals(x) should return true.  It is symmetric: for any reference values x and y, x.equals(y) should return true if and only if y.equals(x) returns true.  It is transitive: for any reference values x, y, and z, if x.equals(y) returns true and y.equals(z) returns true, then x.equals(z) should return true.  It is consistent: for any reference values x and y, multiple invocations of x.equals(y) consistently return true or consistently return false, provided no information used in equals comparisons on the object is modified.  For any non-null reference value x, x.equals(null) should return false.

63. hashcode() method  Java provides all objects with the ability to generate a hash code.  By default, the hashing algorithm is typically based on an integer representation of the java address.  This method is supported for use with java.util.Hashtable  Will discuss Hashtable in detail during Collections discussion.

64. Rules for overriding hashcode  Whenever invoked on the same object more than once, the hashCode method must return the same integer, provided no information used in equals comparisons on the object is modified.  If two objects are equal according to the equals(Object) method, then calling the hashCode method on each of the two objects must produce the same integer result.  It is not required that if two objects are unequal according to the equals(java.lang.Object) method, then calling the hashCode method on each of the two objects must produce distinct integer results. However, the programmer should be aware that producing distinct integer results for unequal objects may improve the performance of hashtables. equals(java.lang.Object)

65. finalize() method  Called as final step when Object is no longer used, just before garbage collection  Object version does nothing  Since java has automatic garbage collection, finalize() does not need to be overridden reclaim memory.  Can be used to reclaim other resources – close streams, database connections, threads.  However, it is strongly recommended not to rely on this for scarce resources.  Be explicit and create own dispose method.