1. Motivation and Behavior Chapter 7

2. Motivation  An inferred process within a person or animal that initiates, activates, or maintains their movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation.

3. Sociobiology: A Glance into Evolution  Natural selection: an evolutionary mechanism that occurs when some individuals of a population are better able to adapt to their environment and, subsequently, produce more offspring. Nature, in effect, selects which members of a population are fit to survive long enough to reproduce. Differential reproductive success among individuals is the key. Those who produce more offspring have a greater influence on the gene frequencies of the next generation. This mechanism of evolutionary change was first described by Darwin (1809-1882).

4. Survival of the Fittest: Individualism & Collectivism  Spencer (1954) The struggle for survival motivates people to compete for scarce resources; Those who are fit for the struggle will succeed and those who aren’t fail  Baldwin (1991) Survival needs can be individual and collective e.g., collective survival is found in African people

5. Schubert (1991)  Sociobiology does not account for the religious, social, cultural factors influence diversity  E.g., high income and birth rates are negatively correlated & People experiencing economic threats tend to have more children YET wealthy Arab nations still have more children

6. Instincts  An inborn pattern of behavior often responsive to specific stimuli behavior that is specific to a certain species and appears in the same form in all members of the species  Although theorists e.g., Bekheterev, LeBon, & Tarde maintain people have social instincts of imitation, social reflexes etc. This is not supported by research

7. Social Science & Society  Weber (1922) saw two societies  Preindustrial (traditional)- people’s behavior is viewed as inseparable from society’s rules and customs  Industrial (nontraditional) or capitalistic societies where rationality is the pillar of motivation  Marx (1867) saw economic inequality as activating human needs BUT social equality does not prevent aggression & inequality does not create aggression

8. Drive and Arousal  Drive- internal aroused condition that directs an organism to satisfy some physiological need  Need- a motivated state caused by physiological or psychological deprivation  Biological i.e., are universal & directed toward self- preservation  Social i.e., direct people toward establishing & maintaining relationships  The goal of behavior is to attain balance/ stability

9. Arousal Theories  Suggest people seek to maintain optimal levels of arousal by actively changing their exposure to arousing stimuli (Yerkes, 1911)

10. Psychoanalysis: The Unconscious  Freud (1938)  Unconscious refers to the level of consciousness with thoughts feelings, and memories that influence us w/o our awareness  Two instincts  Life (eros)  Thanatos (death)  Personality  Id  Superego  Ego * Psychoanalytic theory lacks empirical validity, but has some value toward cultural symbols and rituals

11. Humanistic Theories  Focus on human dignity, individual choice, & self- worth  Maslow (1970) studied healthy individuals  Needs arranged in a hierarchy  Low-level needs must be meet before trying to satisfy higher-level needs  Esteem: Status, respect, power  Self-actualization: Fulfill one’s potential

12. Self-Actualizing Characteristics  Accurate perception of reality  Appreciation & open to experience  Spontaneity & simplicity  Philosophical sense of humor  Need for privacy  Periodic mystical (peak) experiences  Democratic leadership traits  Deep interpersonal relationships  Autonomy & independence  Creativeness  Problem-centered orientation  Resistance to enculturation  Acceptance of self, others, & nature

13. Challenges to Maslow’s Theory  The relative strengths of the needs are culture-specific  Nevis (1983) in China, need for belonging is greater than physiological needs  Petrovsky (1978) claimed the existence of collectivism in Russia

14. Learning & Motivation: Cognitive Theories  Cognitive theories maintain that people are aware of their thought patterns and can control their motivation & behavior  Intrinsic motivation- engages people in activity for its own sake; Deci (1972) suggested that people do this to obtain cognitive stimulation & to gain mastery  Extrinsic motivation- comes from the external environment e.g.,

15. Food Preference  Heaviness is not always caused by overeating & weight loss is not always caused by exercising and eating healthy.  Set Point: The genetically influenced weight range for an individual, maintained by biological mechanisms that regulate food intake, fat reserves, and metabolism.  Cultural norms & traditions regulate our eating habits

16. Weight and Health: Biology Versus Culture  Bulimia: An eating disorder characterized by episodes of excessive eating (binges) followed by forced vomiting or use of laxatives (purging).  Anorexia Nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by fear of being fat, a distorted body image, radically reduced consumption of food, and emaciation. Allows avoidance of role of wife & mother associated with roundness * Other cultures may pressure women to overeat e.g., Mauritania

17. Achievement Motivation  Need for achievement  McClelland (1958) thought achievement motivation i.e., strive for success, is learned throughout life  Different social norms for motivation e.g., Czechoslovakia, American, Chinese, Mexican show different types of success

18.  Furham (1994) showed a strong relationship between individual achievement motivation & economic growth; Ogbu (1986) noted a difference in motivation for black students where success was not necessarily defined by school  Zheng & Stimpson (1990) found difference between entrepreneurs and nonentrepreneurs in innovation, achievement orientation, self- esteem, and personal control

19.  Individualist-success motivation--- affects attitude toward personal goals  Western cultures  Task orientation i.e., one’s ability to learn and grow  Collectivist-success motivation--- affects attitude toward connecting with others  Eastern cultures  Ego orientation i.e., one’s relationship to others (Chinese who are bicultural do both

20. Goals and Aspirations  Goals improve motivation when:  The goal is specific  The goal is challenging but achievable  The goal is framed in terms of getting what is wanted rather than avoiding what is not wanted

21. Types of Goals  Performance Goals: Goals framed in terms of performing well in front of others, being judged favorably, and avoiding criticism.  Mastery (Learning) Goals: Goals framed in terms of increasing one’s competence and skills.

22. Mastery and Motivation  Children praised for being smart tend to lose the pleasure of learning and focus on how well they are doing.

23. Motivational Conflicts  Approach-Approach Conflict:  Equally attracted to two activities or goals.  Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict:  Choosing between the “lesser of the evils.”  Approach-Avoidance Conflict:  One activity or goal has both positive and negative elements.  Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflicts:  Several choices, each with advantages and disadvantages.

24. Aggressive Motivation  Biological perspective  Learning perspective: Impacted by cultural views and cultural support  Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (Dollard et. al., 1939; Berkowitz, 1962)– aggression is dominant unlearned response to frustration from poverty, broken families, migration, urbanization, unemployment, & discrimination

25. Factors involved in Aggression  Social competence (Asher et. al., 1992)  Gender (boys are 4x more likely to be violent than girls)  Ethnicity (difference in arrest rates)  Culture i.e., infanticide, domestic violence, & honor killings; difference in acceptance of violence from culture to culture

26. Culture & Sexuality  Sexual motivation– impacted by human physiology & culture  Sex culture refers to requirements, beliefs, symbols, & norms  Sexual abuse, sexual values  traditionalism & nontraditionalists may be similar or different in sexual practices

27. The Culture of Desire  Sexual Scripts: Sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual behavior for a person in a given situation, varying with the person’s age, culture, and gender.

28. The Psychology of Desire  Many Motives for Sex  Enhancement  Intimacy  Coping  Self-Affirmation  Partner Approval  Peer Approval

29. Attitudes Toward Chastity

30. The Riddle of Sexual Orientation  Psychological Versus Biological Explanations  Homosexuality and Politics

31. Sexual Practices  Kissing  What is attractive  Armpits & ankles  Different sexual practices  Innis Beag, Sambia, Mangaia  Sexual activity e.g., white males (14-21) are more sexually active than Latinos, but less than blacks  Sexual challenges for the genders  Erectile dysfunction vs lack of interest

32. Sternberg’s Triangle Theory of Love  Varieties of love occur because of differing combinations of three elements  Examples:  Liking: Intimacy alone  Companionate love: Intimacy + Commitment  Romantic love: Intimacy + Passion Commitment Passion Intimacy

33. Lee’s Six Styles of Love  Eros – Romantic, passionate love  Ludus – Game-playing love  Storge – Affectionate, friendly love  Pragma – Logical, pragmatic love  Mania – Possessive, dependent, “crazy” love  Agape – Unselfish love