1. Overview Booth’s Algorithm revisited Computer Internal Memory Cache memory

2. Booth’s Algorithm Revisited

3. 2’s Comp Multiplication Booth’s Algorithm Q -1

4. 2’s Comp Multiplication Booth’s Algorithm

5. Booth : (7) x (3) A Q M 3 7 0000 0011 0 0111 -------------------- 1001 0011 0 0111 A <- (A - M) 1st 1100 1001 1 0111 Shift -------------------- 2nd 1110 0100 1 0111 Shift -------------------- 0101 0100 1 0111 A <- (A + M) 3rd 0010 1010 0 0111 Shift -------------------- 4th 0001 0101 0 0111 Shift --------------------

6. Booth : (7) x (-3) A Q M -3 7 0000 1101 0 0111 -------------------- 1001 1101 0 0111 A <- (A - M) 1st 1100 1110 1 0111 Shift -------------------- 0011 1110 1 0111 A <- (A + M) 2nd 0001 1111 0 0111 Shift -------------------- 1010 1111 0 0111 A <- (A - M) 3rd 1101 0111 1 0111 Shift -------------------- 4th 1110 1011 1 0111 Shift --------------------

7. Booth : (-7) x (3) A Q M 3 -7 0000 0011 0 1001 -------------------- 0111 0011 0 1001 A <- (A - M) 1st 0011 1001 1 1001 Shift -------------------- 2nd 0001 1100 1 1001 Shift -------------------- 1010 1100 1 1001 A <- (A + M) 3rd 1101 0110 0 1001 Shift -------------------- 4th 1110 1011 0 1001 Shift --------------------

8. Booth : (-7) x (-3) A Q M -3 -7 0000 1101 0 1001 -------------------- 0111 1101 0 1001 A <- (A - M) 1st 0011 1110 1 1001 Shift -------------------- 1100 1110 1 1001 A <- (A + M) 2nd 1110 0111 0 1001 Shift -------------------- 0101 0111 0 1001 A <- (A - M) 3rd 0010 1011 1 1001 Shift -------------------- 4th 0001 0101 1 1001 Shift --------------------

9. Computer Memory

10. Characteristics of Computer Memory Physical Location Capacity Unit of transfer Access Method Performance Physical Type Physical Characteristics Organization

11. Memory Hierarchy - Diagram

12. Location of Memory In CPU Internal to processor External to processor (peripheral device) Capacity of Memory Word Size -The natural unit of organization Number of words - or Bytes

13. Unit of Transfer If Internal –Usually governed by data bus width If External –Usually a block which is much larger than a word Addressable Unit Smallest location which can be uniquely addressed Word internally Cluster on disks

14. Access Methods Sequential –Start at the beginning and read through in order –Access time depends on location of data and previous location e.g. tape Direct –Individual blocks have unique address –Alternatively Access is by jumping to vicinity plus sequential search Access time depends on location and previous locatio e.g. disk Random - Individual addresses identify locations exactly e.g. RAM Associative - Data is located by a comparison with contents of a portion of the store - Access time is independent of location or previous access e.g. cache

15. Performance Access time –Time between presenting the address and getting the valid data Memory Cycle time –Time may be required for the memory to “recover” before next access –Cycle time is access + read/recovery (maybe rewrite) Transfer Rate –Rate at which data can be moved

16. Physical Types Semiconductor –RAM (SRAM, DRAM), ROM Magnetic –Disk & Tape Optical –CD & DVD [& Magneto-optical (MO)] Others –Bubble –Hologram – …… Characteristics Volatility Persistence (or decay) Erasable Power consumption

17. The Bottom Line How much? – Capacity How fast? – Access / Transfer Rate How expensive? – $$$$ Power usage? – watts

18. Hierarchy List Capacity/Speed/Expense/Power Registers Cache Main memory Disk Tape

19. Internal Memory

20. Semiconductor Memory Types Today’s technology: 2 Gigabit / sq in In R&D: 100 Gigabits / sq in

21. Semiconductor Memory (EPROM)

22. Static RAM (SRAM) Desired for main memory –Basically an array of flip-flops –Simple to interface and control –Fast –Relatively low density – complex –Relatively expensive

23. Static RAM Model

24. Memory Design – 1K x 4 A[00:09]   D[03:00] Addr Block Select 

25. Memory Design – 1K x 8 A[00:09]    D[07:04] A[00:09]    D[03:00] Addr Block Select => D[07:04] D[03:00]

26. Memory Design - 2k x 8 D[07:04] D[03:00] Block 00 Block 01

27. Memory Design - 4k x 8 D[07:04] D[03:00] Block 00 Block 01 Block 10 Block 11

28. Register

29. 2 2 x 3 Memory address decoder word selectword WE address write enable input bits output bits  Multiplexor

30. 2 4 x 8 Memory ?

31. 1K X 4 SRAM (Part Number 2114N) The implementation of 1K by 4 SRAM chips may differ. This implementation perhaps appears overly complex. However, its interface will be the same as others.

32. Memory Organization A 16Mbit chip can be organized as 1M of 16 bit words (likely for SRAM) OR A 16Mbit chip can be organized as a 2048 x 2048 x 4bit array (likely for DRAM) –Reduces number of address pins Multiplex row address and column address 11 pins to address (2 11 =2048) Adding one more pin doubles range of values so x4 capacity

33. Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Used in main memory –Particularly larger main memory Bits stored as charge in capacitors - Essentially analog device –Charges leak Need refreshing even when powered –Need refresh circuits Higher density than SRAM (more bits per chip) –Less devices/bit Slower than SRAM –Must refresh Less expensive than SRAM –More bits per area Less power than SRAM –Basically capacitors

34. Dynamic RAM model

35. Typical 16 Mb DRAM (4M x 4)

36. 256kByte Module Organization (256K x 8)

37. 1MByte Module Organization (1Meg x 8 bits)

38. Refreshing Refresh circuit is included on the chip Count through rows Read & Write back Chip must be disabled during refresh ! ! Takes time Occurs asynchronously Slows down apparent performance

39. Improvements in memory RAM – continually gets denser. DRAM – Several improvements: SDRAM – synchronous DRAM DDR-SDRAM - doubles transfer speed RDRAM – asynchronous one transfer per clock cycle

40. Cache Memory

41. So you want fast? It is possible to build a computer which uses only static RAM (large capacity of fast memory) This would be a very fast computer This would be very costly

42. Locality of Reference During the course of the execution of a program, memory references tend to cluster e.g. programs -loops, nesting, … data – strings, lists, arrays, …

43. Cache Memory Organization Cache - Small amount of fast memory –Sits between normal main memory and CPU –May be located on CPU chip or in system –Objective is to make slower memory system look like fast memory. There may be more levels of cache (L1, L2,..)

44. Cache operation – Overview CPU requests contents of memory location Cache is checked for this data If present, get from cache (fast) If not present, read required block from main memory to cache Then deliver from cache to CPU Cache includes tags to identify which block(s) of main memory are in the cache

45. Cache Read Operation - Flowchart

46. Cache Design Parameters Size of Cache Size of Blocks in Cache Mapping Function – how to assign blocks Write Policy - Replacement Algorithm when blocks need to be replaced

47. Size Does Matter Cost –More cache is expensive Speed –More cache is faster (up to a point) –Checking cache for data takes time

48. Typical Cache Organization

49. Cache/Main Direct Caching Memory Structure

50. Direct Mapping Cache Organization

51. Direct Mapping Summary Each block of main memory maps to only one cache line –i.e. if a block is in cache, it must be in one specific place Address is in two parts - Least Significant w bits identify unique word - Most Significant s bits specify which one memory block The MSBs are split into a cache line field r and a tag of s-r (most significant)

52. Example Direct Mapping Function 16MBytes main memory –i.e. memory address is 24 bits - (2 24 =16M) bytes of memory Cache of 64k bytes –i.e. cache is 16k - (2 14 ) lines of 4 bytes each Cache block of 4 bytes –i.e. block is 4 bytes - (2 2 ) bytes of data per block

53. Example Direct Mapping Address Structure Tag s-rLine or Slot rWord w 8 142 24 bit address 2 bit word identifier (4 byte block) 22 bit block identifier –8 bit tag (=22-14) –14 bit slot or line No two blocks in the same line have the same Tag field Check contents of cache by finding line and checking Tag

54. Illustration of Example

55. Direct Mapping pros & cons Pros: – Simple – Inexpensive – ? Cons: –Fixed location for given block If a program accesses 2 blocks that map to the same line repeatedly, cache misses are very high – ?

56. The remaining slides in this set were not covered in class.

57. Comparison of improved DRAM Conventional DRAM – 40 to 100 MB/S transfer rate?

58. Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) Access is synchronized with an external clock Address is presented to RAM RAM finds data (CPU waits in conventional DRAM) Since SDRAM moves data in time with system clock, CPU knows when data will be ready CPU does not have to wait, it can do something else Burst mode allows SDRAM to set up stream of data and fire it out in block DDR-SDRAM sends data twice per clock cycle (leading & trailing edge)

59. SDRAM Read Timing

60. SDRAM

61. DDR SDRAM SDRAM can only send data once per clock Double-data-rate SDRAM can send data twice per clock cycle –Rising edge and falling edge

62. RAMBUS Adopted by Intel for Pentium & Itanium Main competitor to SDRAM Separate bus (hence the name RAMBUS) – maximum 12 centimeter length bus ! Bus addresses up to 320 RDRAM chips – at 1.6Gbps Asynchronous block protocol – Precise control signal timing – 480ns access time

63. RAMBUS Diagram