1. Folds and folding

2. Outline Terms For Describing Folds Fold systems Fold geometries
Mechanics of folding
Kimematic models of folding

3. Initial Layer Cake

4. Convexity and Age of Beds
Anticline - a fold that is convex in the direction of youngest beds
Syncline - a fold that is convex in the direction of oldest beds

5. Direction of Fold Closing
inflection point
inflection point - change in curvature (i.e., concave to convex)

6. Folds - Definitions
Antiforms are anticline-shaped folds (convex-down) whose stratigraphic order has not been determined.
Synforms are syncline-shaped folds (convex-up) whose stratigraphic order has not been determined.
We apply these terms to any fold in which facing direction and/or stratigraphic order is unknown or uncertain.
Determining stratigraphic succession - which way is up!

7. Folds - Definitions
Overturned folds are those who have a limb that us technically upside down, it has rotated beyond vertical - dipping past 90°.

8. Folds - Geometric Properties
The most basic element of a fold is the folded surface
We usually describe folds in normal profile view as seen by looking down the fold axis or down plunge.

9. Folds - Geometric Properties
In normal profile view, folded surfaces can be divided up into limbs and hinges.
If the hinge is sharp, that point is called the hinge point otherwise it is called a hinge zone.
Fold limbs commonly curve, and the location where segments of opposite convexity join is called the inflection point.
It is the place where the fold is setting up for the next hinge.

10. Folds - Geometric Properties
The hinge line of a fold is defined by successively connecting the hinge points along the strike length of the fold.
The orientation of the hinge line is recorded as a lineation (plunge & trend). Hinge lines are typically not straight and their orientations can vary considerably.
Take hinge points along a single folded surface, taken together define a hinge line
The orientation of a folded surface can be defined by the orientation of a hinge line, using plunge & trend.

11. Hinge line
inflection point
inflection point - change in curvature (i.e., concave to convex)

12. Folds - Geometric Properties
To establish the orientation or attitude of a fold, it is necessary to know its hinge orientation and the orientation of the axial plane or axial surface.
The trend and plunge of a hinge line of a fold does not uniquely define the orientation of the fold

13. Determining the Fold Axial Surface

14. Determining the Fold Axial Surface

15. Profile Plane of a Fold

16. Folds - Geometric Properties
The axial surface of a fold connects all the hinge points in all successive layers.
It may be planar - an axial plane, or a curvi-planar surface - an axial surface.

18. Folds - Hinge lines & Axial Surfaces
Hinge lines are lines described by a lineation that lies on the axial surface, which is itself described by strike and dip..
Axial surface - Surface created by the hinge lines of consecutive layers within the fold area - it may be planar or curved. Described by strike and dip

19. How can we measure the axial surface?
We can measure its dip direction and the angle of dip
Strike can always be determined by remembering that strike is perpendicular to dip
How is the AP shown on a stereonet?

20. Interlimb Angle
Four Categories:
Gentle
Open
Tight
Isoclinal

21. Interlimb angle: classifying fold shape

22. Angularity of Interlimb Angle

23. Attitude of Axial Surface

24. Cylindrical or Non-Cylindrical Folds

25. Fold Types: Cylindrical Folds
Cylindrical folds: Folds where the hinge line is straight.
If traced far enough, few hinge lines are ever straight, but segments of the hinge lines are straight, so this is a useful concept.

27. Think of plotting poles to bedding for the Mt. Baldy Lab

28. Stereographic Determination of Fold Orientations
Cylindrical and non-cylindrical folds
Poles to bedding planes are co-planar if the fold has a cylindrical geometry.

29. Stereographic Determination of Fold Orientations
It is usually impossible to directly measure the axis and axial surface of large folds.
The trend and plunge of the hinge line (fold axis) and strike and dip of the axial surface can be calculated using a stereonet.
An axial surface, by definition, passes through the hinge line of successive folded surfaces within a fold.
The point representing the trend and plunge of the hinge line lies on a great circle that describes the orientation of the axial surface (great circle).

30. By definition, the fold axis (hinge line) lies upon the axial plane, which bisects the fold-limbs.

31. Stereographic Determination of Fold Orientations
How to determine a fold axis and axial surface of a large fold in the field
Two methods are:
1) Beta diagrams: -diagrams
2) Pi diagrams: -diagrams

32. Stereographic Determination of Fold Orientations
Beta diagrams: b-diagrams
Intersection shows the trend and plunge of fold axis.
The intersection of two bedding planes (e.g., great circles) represents a close approximation to trend and plunge of the hinge line.
The intersection of the great circles is labeled beta (b).
This is called a beta (b) diagram.

33. Stereographic Determination of Fold Orientations
Pi diagrams: p-diagrams
Another way to calculate the orientation of a fold.
p plots uses at least 2 poles to bedding, results in the orientation of the fold axis.
p uses multiple poles to bedding, fits a best-fit great circle to those poles, and also results in the orientation of the fold axis.

34. Stereographic Determination of Fold Orientations
Pi diagrams: p-diagrams
Pole to pi great circle shows the orientation of the fold axis
p plots uses at least 2 poles to bedding, results in the orientation of the fold axis.
p uses multiple poles to bedding, fits a best-fit great circle to those poles, and also results in the orientation of the fold axis.

35. The angle between limb 1 and limb 2 and the axial plane are the same - a bisector!

36. Bisecting surface:
Simple view in stereographic method that the bisecting surface approximates the axial surface.
The bisecting surface and the axial surface do not always coincide.
The axial surface connects individual hinge lines

37. Determining the orientation of the bisecting surface of a fold.
Construct beta diagram
Plot poles to the fold limbs
Measure angle between the poles.
Fit a great circle to the bisector and b

38. Determining the orientation of the bisecting surface of a fold
Stereographic view of bisecting surface in proper orientation.

41. Stratigraphic Facing

42. Fold Symmetry and fold vergence

43. Fold Harmonics

44. Parasitic Folds Parasitic folds always verge towards anticlines
and away from
synclines

45. Parasitic Folds
Parasitic folds verge towards anticlines and away from synclines

46. Parasitic folds verge towards anticlines and away from synclines

47. Vergence The direction in which the next antiform can be found.
Vergence occurs in the direction in which thrusting took place.

48. Vergence

49. Vergence Parasitic folds
Gives us information about sense of shear on the fold limbs as well as the location of larger-scale fold hinges..
Think of S and Z folds, their asymmetry will give a sense of rotation, when viewed down plunge.

50. Vergence
Small scale folds define fold shape

51. Vergence Which cross-section is correct?
Identify major isoclinal fold:
antiform or synform? Z
Use asymmetry of the folds suggests flexural slip on the limbs of an overturned synform.
Expected layer parallel slip (flexural slip) indicates sense of shear.
Flexural slip folding (buckling) transforms symmetrical folds into asymmetrical folds

52. Vergence Which cross-section is correct?
Identify major isoclinal fold:
antiform or synform? Z S Z

53. References Most figures from: