1. 3 SUPPLY AND DEMAND II: MARKETS AND WELFARE

2. Copyright © 2004 South-Western 7 Consumers, Producers, and the Efficiency of Markets (Neytendur, framleiðendur og skilvirkni markaða)

3. Copyright © 2004 South-Western REVISITING THE MARKET EQUILIBRIUM Do the equilibrium price and quantity maximize the total welfare of buyers and sellers? Market equilibrium reflects the way markets allocate scarce resources (tilfærsla - ráðstöfun á takmörkuðum auðlindum). Whether the market allocation is desirable (ákjósanleg tilfærsla) can be addressed by welfare economics.

4. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Welfare Economics Velferðarhagfræði Welfare economics is the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well- being (hagsæld). Buyers and sellers receive benefits from taking part in the market. (kaupendur og seljendur ávinning af því að vera þátttakendur á markaði) The equilibrium in a market maximizes the total welfare of buyers and sellers.

5. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Welfare Economics Equilibrium in the market results in maximum benefits (jafnvægi leiðir til hámarksávinnings), and therefore maximum total welfare for both the consumers and the producers of the product.

6. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Welfare Economics Consumer surplus (neytenda ábati) measures (mældur sem) economic welfare from the buyer’s side. Producer surplus measures economic welfare from the seller’s side.

7. Copyright © 2004 South-Western CONSUMER SURPLUS Willingness to pay is the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a good. (viljinn til að borga er hámarksupphæð sem kaupandi er reiðubúinn til að borga fyrir vöru). It measures how much the buyer values the good or service. (endurspeglar mat kaupanda á vöru eða þjónustu)

8. Copyright © 2004 South-Western CONSUMER SURPLUS Consumer surplus is the buyer’s willingness to pay for a good minus the amount the buyer actually pays for it.

9. Figure 1 The Demand Schedule and the Demand Curve Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Price of Album 0Quantity of Albums Demand 1234 $100 John’s willingness to pay 80 Paul’s willingness to pay 70 George’s willingness to pay 50 Ringo’s willingness to pay

10. Figure 2 Measuring Consumer Surplus with the Demand Curve Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning (b) Price = $70 Price of Album 50 70 80 0 $100 Demand 1234 Total consumer surplus ($40) Quantity of Albums John’s consumer surplus ($30) Paul’s consumer surplus ($10)

11. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Using the Demand Curve to Measure Consumer Surplus The area below the demand curve and above the price measures the consumer surplus in the market.

12. Figure 3 How the Price Affects Consumer Surplus Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Consumer surplus Quantity (a) Consumer Surplus at Price P Price 0 Demand P1P1 Q1Q1 B A C

13. Copyright © 2004 South-Western What Does Consumer Surplus Measure? Consumer surplus, the amount that buyers are willing to pay for a good minus the amount they actually pay for it, measures the benefit that buyers receive from a good as the buyers themselves perceive it.

14. Copyright © 2004 South-Western PRODUCER SURPLUS Producer surplus is the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller’s cost. It measures the benefit to sellers participating in a market.

15. Figure 4 The Supply Schedule and the Supply Curve

16. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Using the Supply Curve to Measure Producer Surplus The area below the price and above the supply curve measures the producer surplus in a market.

17. Figure 5 Measuring Producer Surplus with the Supply Curve Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Quantity of Houses Painted Price of House Painting 500 800 $900 0 600 1234 (a) Price = $600 Supply Grandma’s producer surplus ($100)

18. Figure 5 Measuring Producer Surplus with the Supply Curve Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Quantity of Houses Painted Price of House Painting 500 800 $900 0 600 1234 (b) Price = $800 Georgia’s producer surplus ($200) Total producer surplus ($500) Grandma’s producer surplus ($300) Supply

19. Figure 6 How the Price Affects Producer Surplus Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Producer surplus Quantity (a) Producer Surplus at Price P Price 0 Supply B A C Q1Q1 P1P1

20. Copyright © 2004 South-Western MARKET EFFICIENCY Consumer surplus and producer surplus may be used to address the following question: Is the allocation of resources determined by free markets in any way desirable?

21. Copyright © 2004 South-Western MARKET EFFICIENCY Consumer Surplus = Value to buyers – Amount paid by buyers and Producer Surplus = Amount received by sellers – Cost to sellers

22. Copyright © 2004 South-Western MARKET EFFICIENCY Total surplus = Consumer surplus + Producer surplus or Total surplus = Value to buyers – Cost to sellers

23. Copyright © 2004 South-Western MARKET EFFICIENCY Efficiency is the property (eiginleiki) of a resource allocation (auðlinda tilfærslu) of maximizing the total surplus received (til að hámarka heildarávinning sem fæst) by all members of society.

24. Figure 7 Consumer and Producer Surplus in the Market Equilibrium Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Producer surplus Consumer surplus Price 0 Quantity Equilibrium price Equilibrium quantity Supply Demand A C B D E

25. Copyright © 2004 South-Western MARKET EFFICIENCY Three Insights Concerning Market Outcomes Free markets allocate the supply of goods to the buyers who value them most highly, as measured by their willingness to pay. Free markets allocate the demand for goods to the sellers who can produce them at least cost. Free markets produce the quantity of goods that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus.

26. Figure 8 The Efficiency of the Equilibrium Quantity Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Quantity Price 0 Supply Demand Cost to sellers Cost to sellers Value to buyers Value to buyers Value to buyers is greater than cost to sellers. Value to buyers is less than cost to sellers. Equilibrium quantity

27. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Evaluating the Market Equilibrium Because the equilibrium outcome is an efficient allocation of resources, the social planner can leave the market outcome as he/she finds it. This policy of leaving well enough alone goes by the French expression laissez faire.(afskiptaleysi stjórnvalda)

28. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Evaluating the Market Equilibrium Market Power If a market system is not perfectly competitive, market power may result. Market power is the ability to influence prices. Market power can cause markets to be inefficient because it keeps price and quantity from the equilibrium of supply and demand.

29. Copyright © 2004 South-Western Evaluating the Market Equilibrium Externalities created when a market outcome affects individuals other than buyers and sellers in that market. cause welfare in a market to depend on more than just the value to the buyers and cost to the sellers. Bls 154, þótt almennt sé gert ráð fyrir að útkoma á markaði hafi aðeins áhrif á kaupendur og seljendur, þá geta ákvarðanir kaupenda og seljenda haft áhrif á aðila sem ekki eru beinir þátttakendur. Slík hliðaráhrif externatlities (s.s. mengun) leiða til þess að velferð á markaði er byggir á fleiru en því hver mikils kaupendur virða vöruna og seljendur greiða fyrir hana. When buyers and sellers do not take externalities into account when deciding how much to consume and produce, the equilibrium in the market can be inefficient.