1. Symbioses - Mutualism

2. Symbioses Symbioses - species living in close association Parasitism +,- parasite benefits, host harmed Commensalism +,0 or 0,0 can have positive effect for one species or for neither Mutualism +,+ both species benefit

3. Mutualism Definition - the individuals in a population of each mutualist species grow and/or survive and/or reproduce at a higher rate when in the presence of individuals of the other. Each benefits (+,+)

4. General Features of Mutualisms 1. The life cycle of most mutualistic species is very simple (in contrast to parasites) 2. There is no conspicuous dispersal phase for most endosymbionts (endomutualists) 3. Populations of most mutualists are stable in size - no epidemics as seen in parasites 4. The ecological range (niche breadth) of organisms in mutualisms usually appears to be greater than that of either species alone 5. Host specificity is usually flexible 6. Within populations of mutualists, the number of endosymbionts per host is relatively constant

5. Two types of Mutualism Facultative - each partner gains a benefit but is not dependent on the other - the vast majority of mutualisms are facultative. Obligate - one or both partners is dependent on the other and cannot survive without the other.

6. Mutualisms Involving Links in Behavior

7. Greater Honeyguide

8. Honey Badger

9. Ants and Acacia Trees

10. Beltian bodies (yellow) on Acacia leaves

11. Ant larvae inside Acacia “horn”

12. Pollination Mutualisms

14. Pollination syndromes among the phloxes

15. Honeybee covered with pollen

16. Honeybee pollinating beebalm – Monarda sp.

17. With visible lightwith UV light Nectar guides for honeybees

18. Cyrtid fly pollinating a composite

19. Caralluma – carrion fly pollinated

20. Erysimum – butterfly pollinated

21. Hummingbird pollination

22. Greater double-collared sunbird

23. Episcia – moth pollinated

24. Bat pollination

25. Hammer Orchid and Wasp

26. Figs and Fig Wasps

28. Mutualisms involving Culture of Crops or Livestock

29. Leaf-cutter Ants – genus Atta

30. Diagram of Leaf-cutter ant colony nest

31. Human Agriculture Sustainable DairyIndustrial Wheat

32. Digestive Mutualisms Involving Gut Inhabitants

33. Ruminant with multiple stomachs

34. Ruminant by-products

35. Termite Mound Western Australia

36. Termites

37. Mycorrhizae

38. Ectomycorrhizae

40. VAM – Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae

41. Nitrogen Fixing Mutualisms

42. Red Clover – A Classic Legume

43. Normal Nitrogen Fixation

44. Legume Root Nodules

45. Rhizobium root nodules on a bean plant

46. Animal-Algae Mutualisms

47. Healthy Coral Reef - Indonesia

48. Coral polyp with zooxanthellae - a dinoflagellate, Symbiodinium

49. Coral polyp – coral animal is green, Zooxanthellae is red

50. Endosymbiotic Origin of Eukaryotes Lynne Margulis

51. Endosymbiotic Origin of Eukaryotes

52. The earliest eukaryotes acquired mitochondria by engulfing alpha proteobacteria. The early origin of mitochondria is supported by the fact that all eukaryotes studied so far either have mitochondria or had them in the past. Mitochondria have their own DNA and replicate themselves during cell division. Later in eukaryotic history, some lineages of heterotrophic eukaryotes acquired an additional endosymbiont—a photosynthetic cyanobacterium—that evolved into plastids. This hypothesis is supported by the observation that the DNA of plastids in red and green algae closely resembles the DNA of cyanobacteria. Plastids in these algae are surrounded by two membranes, presumably derived from the cell membranes of host and endosymbiont.

53. Stromatolites on coast of Western Australia