1. Aeronautical Navigation
An Introduction
Materials: Beachball globe, Nav Radios, Omniheads, Mercator/Gnomonic Chart Example, Handheld Radio, 4 Sticks for GPS demonstration
Written for the Notre Dame Pilot Initiative
By the Pilots of the University of Notre Dame
“Teaching the Science, Inspiring the Art, Producing Aviation Candidates!”

2. Quote
“For the execution of the voyage to the Indies, I did not make use of intelligence, mathematics or maps.”
Christopher Columbus

3. Navigation
Navis—ship
Agere—to direct

4. Roadmap Terrestrial coordinates Concepts of position
Chart projections
Concepts of position
Piloting & dead reckoning
Radio navigation systems
Other electronic navigation systems
Celestial navigation
Foundations of Navigation

5. Terrestrial Coordinate System
Great Circles – The largest circle that can be drawn on the surface of the earth & all like it.
Equator
Meridians
Equator
Meridian
Great Circle

6. Terrestrial Coordinate System
Small Circles-all other circles
Parallels

7. Longitude/Latitude
Parallels of latitude are small circles (with the exception of the equator)
Meridians of longitude are great circles
Latitude is 90 degrees
Longitude is 180 degrees

8. Desirable qualities of a chart projection:
Maintain true shape of physical features.
Maintain correct proportions of features relative to one another.
True scale, permitting accurate measurement of distance.
Rhumb lines plot as straight lines.
Great circles plot as straight lines.
No chart has all of these!

9. Mercator vs. Gnomonic Mercator Projection Gnomonic Projection
This is the Great Circle Track that Charles Lindbergh flew
Owl – Shortest distance between two points is a curve (great circle)
Gnomonic Projection

10. Lambert Conformal Projection (Sectional Chart)
Look at the front cover of a sectional chart to see how it unfolds curved

11. Sectional Charts

12. Airways Follow Great Circles
Owl – Airways always follow great circles
V-12 from HAR to JST departs HAR westbound on a heading of 281, and departs JST eastbound on a heading of 096.

13. Navigational concepts
A circle has 360 degrees
A degree has 60 minutes
1° of latitude is the same distance anywhere on the earth.
How many miles is one minute of latitude?
Ans. 1 min lat. = 1 nm = 2000 yds.
Any questions on these concepts
Note that a NM is 15% longer than a SM

14. Where are we? At the ROTC Building -point On Juniper Road -LOP
½ mile from Golden Dome -LOP(circle)
Near Meijer
Ambiguous(which one?)
Imprecise(how far?)
We will be there in 5 minutes
Answer to: when will we arrive there?
Draw these on the blackboard

15. Line of Position (LOP) A line that defines our position in 1-D
Not necessarily straight
Arc, circle, hyperbola, intersection of spheres
Need a second line to define a fix in 2-D
Need a third to be sure

16. Navigational Elements
Measurement
Point
Bearing
Range
2 bearings
2 ranges
Bearing & range
Results
Fix
LOP
LOP (arc)
Aviation Example
Over SBN
GIJ 178°R
GIJ 4.2 DME
GSH 313°/GIJ 178°
GSH 16.3/GIJ 4.2
GIJ 178°/4.2
GSH = Goshen
GIJ = Gipper

17. How do we get there? Plot a course Steer a heading Make a good track
What’s a course?
path of intended motion
Steer a heading
What’s a heading?
the direction the aircraft is pointed
Make a good track
What’s a track?
the aircraft’s path over the ground

18. Course, Heading, & Track Big Bad Wind End of animation
Plot a course, fly a heading, and make a track

19. Types of Navigation Systems
Pilotage
Dead Reckoning
Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV
Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial
Celestial
Types of Navigation:
- Pilotage (Coastal) Navigation: employs the use of visual bearings and/or radar information to know landmarks to establish the ship's position and provide the information needed to safely and efficiently "drive" the ship.
-Deduced ("Dead") Reckoning: a method of estimating the ship's position using the courses and speeds steered. First used when early mariners ventured out of sight of land, to enable them to get back home.

20. Basic VFR Navigation Techniques:
Pilotage
Sectional chart
Dead reckoning
(DEDuced reckoning)
Compass & watch

21. Nomenclature True & magnetic courses are given in 3 digits, e.g. 090
Relative bearings are given in degrees or clock position, e.g. 10º left of the nose, or 11 o’clock

22. Dead Reckoning DEN Big Bad Tower 1300 DR N E S W 1200 DR 1100 DR 070 °
Big Bad Mountain
1000 DR
Note how we know our position at every point in time because we know how fast we are flying and in what direction and for how long. We can safely navigate between hazards (called the Rockies).
We always use BOTH dead reckoning and pilotage.
PHX
0900 DR
0800 Fix

23. Types of Navigation Systems
Pilotage
Dead Reckoning
Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV
Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial
Celestial
Types of Navigation:
-Radionavigation: Typically uses electromagnetic signals transmitted from ground stations to establish position.

24. The Radio Compass 1946 Stinson Voyager A Great 1 person airplane
Geo Metro of the Air
1946 Stinson Voyager

25. ADF/NDB
The ADF, or Automatic Direction Finder, is the receiver in the aircraft
The NDB, or Nondirectional Radio Beacon, is the transmitting antenna on the ground
The ADF is the receiver of the NDB’s transmissions

26. NDB
The NDB is a ground-based radio transmitter that emits a signal in every direction
Benefits
Economic
Easy to maintain
Not line of sight
Errors
Susceptible to interference (T-Storms)
Bounces around coastlines

27. NDB Operates on 190-535kHz Types Range is 190-1750kHz
HH – watts; 75nm range
H – watts; 50nm range
MH – less than 50 watts; 25nm range
Compass Locator – less than 25 watts; 15 nm range
AM Radio Station

28. ADF The ADF determines the bearing from the aircraft TO the station
Needle ALWAYS points to the station
Indicates relative bearing
Bearing, measured clockwise, from the nose of the aircraft TO the station
Card only indicates angle – has nothing to do with direction aircraft is pointed
Differences between fixed card and moveable card.

29. ADF
Using relative bearing and magnetic heading, magnetic bearing can be found
Actual heading to fly to the station
MB = MH + RB
Examples from Gleim (p. 272) – 13, 15, 16, 19, 25, 30

30. Homing the NDB
Homing
Flying the aircraft on any heading required to keep the needle pointed straight ahead (0° RB)
Works great without wind
Takes longer and not direct with wind
Diagram homing on board

31. Tracking the NDB
Tracking – flying on a heading that maintains a constant, desired track to/from a station
Find heading/course that takes you to the station
Once off by 10°, double the deflection and turn towards station (head of the needle)
Once deflection equals correction, you are back on course
Turn 10° towards needle
Repeat as necessary and become more precise with correction

32. Intercepting the NDB Parallel course Note deflection Double it
Turn towards needle
Once deflection equals correction, you are on course
Correct for wind (tracking)
NOTE: very similar to tracking

33. Types of ADFs Fixed Card Moveable Card RMI – Radio Magnetic Indicator
Always shows 0° at the top
Moveable Card
Can show magnetic heading at top
Bad idea
RMI – Radio Magnetic Indicator
Slaved to move with aircraft
GREAT to have!

34. Types of ADFs
Fixed Card
Moveable Card
RMI