1. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 12 Stellar Evolution

2. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. “We are stardust Billion year old carbon We are golden” Woodstock by Joni Mitchell

3. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Units of Chapter 12 Leaving the Main Sequence Evolution of a Sun-like Star The Death of a Low-Mass Star Evolution of Stars More Massive than the Sun Supernova Explosions Observing Stellar Evolution in Star Clusters The Cycle of Stellar Evolution

4. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) red giants. b) pulsars. c) black holes. d) white dwarfs. e) red dwarfs. Question 1 Stars like our Sun will end their lives as

5. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) red giants. b) pulsars. c) black holes. d) white dwarfs. e) red dwarfs. Question 1 Stars like our Sun will end their lives as Low-mass stars eventually swell into red giants, and their cores later contract into white dwarfs.

6. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) in the Big Bang. b) by nucleosynthesis in massive stars. c) in the cores of stars like the Sun. d) within planetary nebulae. e) They have always existed. Question 2 Elements heavier than hydrogen and Helium were created

7. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Question 2 Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created Massive stars create enormous core temperatures as red supergiants, fusing helium into carbon, oxygen, and even heavier elements. a) in the Big Bang. b) by nucleosynthesis in massive stars. c) in the cores of stars like the Sun. d) within planetary nebula e) They have always existed.

8. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Leaving the Main Sequence During its stay on the main sequence, any fluctuations in a star’s condition are quickly restored; the star is in equilibrium.

9. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) its core begins fusing iron. b) its supply of hydrogen is used up. c) the carbon core detonates, and it explodes as a Type I supernova. d) helium builds up in the core, while the hydrogen-burning shell expands. e) the core loses all of its neutrinos, so all fusion ceases. Question 3 The Sun will evolve away from the main sequence when

10. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) its core begins fusing iron. b) its supply of hydrogen is used up. c) the carbon core detonates, and it explodes as a Type I supernova. d) helium builds up in the core, while the hydrogen-burning shell expands. e) the core loses all of its neutrinos, so all fusion ceases. Question 3 The Sun will evolve away from the main sequence when When the Sun’s core becomes unstable and contracts, additional H fusion generates extra pressure, and the star will swell into a red giant.

11. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Leaving the Main Sequence Eventually, as hydrogen in the core is consumed, the star begins to leave the main sequence. Its evolution from then on depends very much on the mass of the star: Low-mass stars go quietly. High-mass stars go out with a bang! End times 1 End times 2

12. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of a Sun-like Star Even while on the main sequence, the composition of a star’s core is changing.

13. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of a Sun-like Star As the fuel in the core is used up, the core contracts; when it is used up the core begins to collapse. Hydrogen begins to fuse outside the core.

14. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of a Sun-like Star Stages of a star leaving the main sequence.

15. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of a Sun-like Star Stage 9: The red giant branch: As the core continues to shrink, the outer layers of the star expand and cool. It is now a red giant, extending out as far as the orbit of Mercury. Despite its cooler temperature, its luminosity increases enormously due to its large size.

16. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of a Sun-like Star The red giant stage on the H– R diagram

17. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) when T-Tauri bipolar jets shoot out. b) in the middle of the main sequence stage. c) in the red giant stage. d) during the formation of a neutron star. e) in the planetary nebula stage. Question 4 The helium flash occurs

18. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) when T-Tauri bipolar jets shoot out. b) in the middle of the main sequence stage. c) in the red giant stage. d) during the formation of a neutron star. e) in the planetary nebula stage. Question 4 The helium flash occurs When the collapsing core of a red giant reaches high enough temperatures and densities, helium can fuse into carbon quickly – a helium flash.

19. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of a Sun-like Star Stage 10: Helium fusion Once the core temperature has risen to 100,000,000 K, the helium in the core starts to fuse. The helium flash: Helium begins to fuse extremely rapidly; within hours the enormous energy output is over, and the star once again reaches equilibrium.

20. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of a Sun-like Star Stage 10 on the H–R diagram Horizontal branch lasts 10s of millions of years

21. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of a Sun-like Star Stage 11: Back to the giant branch: As the helium in the core fuses to carbon, the core becomes hotter and hotter, and the helium burns faster and faster. The star is now similar to its condition just as it left the main sequence, except now there are two shells.

22. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of a Sun-like Star The star has become a red giant for the second time.

23. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Death of a Low-Mass Star This graphic shows the entire evolution of a Sun-like star. Such stars never become hot enough for fusion past carbon to take place.

24. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) T-Tauri stage. b) emission nebula stage. c) supernova stage. d) nova stage. e) planetary nebula stage. Question 5 Stars gradually lose mass as they become white dwarfs during the

25. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) T-Tauri stage. b) emission nebula stage. c) supernova stage. d) nova stage. e) planetary nebula stage. Question 5 Stars gradually lose mass as they become white dwarfs during the Low-mass stars forming white dwarfs slowly lose their outer atmospheres, and illuminate these gases for a relatively short time.

26. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Death of a Low-Mass Star There is no more outward fusion pressure being generated in the core, which continues to contract. Stage 12: The outer layers of the star expand to form a planetary nebula. planetary nebula

27. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) electron degeneracy. b) neutron degeneracy. c) thermal pressure from intense core temperatures. d) gravitational pressure. e) helium-carbon fusion. Question 6 The source of pressure that makes a white dwarf stable is

28. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) electron degeneracy. b) neutron degeneracy. c) thermal pressure from intense core temperatures. d) gravitational pressure. e) helium-carbon fusion. Question 6 The source of pressure that makes a white dwarf stable is Electrons in the core cannot be squeezed infinitely close, and prevent a low-mass star from collapsing further.

29. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Death of a Low-Mass Star The star now has two parts: A small, extremely dense carbon core An envelope about the size of our solar system. The envelope is called a planetary nebula, even though it has nothing to do with planets – early astronomers viewing the fuzzy envelope thought it resembled a planetary system.

30. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Death of a Low-Mass Star Stages 13 and 14: White and black dwarfs: Once the nebula has gone, the remaining core is extremely dense and extremely hot, but quite small. It is luminous only due to its high temperature.

31. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Death of a Low-Mass Star The small star Sirius B is a white dwarf companion of the much larger and brighter Sirius A.

32. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) an asteroid. b) a planet the size of Earth. c) a planet the size of Jupiter. d) an object the size of the Moon. e) an object the size of a sugar cube. Question 7 In a white dwarf, the mass of the Sun is packed into the volume of

33. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) an asteroid. b) a planet the size of Earth. c) a planet the size of Jupiter. d) an object the size of the Moon. e) an object the size of a sugar cube. Question 7 In a white dwarf, the mass of the Sun is packed into the volume of The density of a white dwarf is about a million times greater than normal solid matter.

34. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Death of a Low-Mass Star The Hubble Space Telescope has detected white dwarf stars in globular clusters

35. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Death of a Low-Mass Star As the white dwarf cools, its size does not change significantly; it simply gets dimmer and dimmer, and finally ceases to glow.

36. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Death of a Low-Mass Star A nova is a star that flares up very suddenly and then returns slowly to its former luminosity.

37. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Death of a Low-Mass Star A white dwarf that is part of a semi-detached binary system can undergo repeated novae. binary system

38. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Death of a Low-Mass Star Material falls onto the white dwarf from its main-sequence companion. white dwarf When enough material has accreted, fusion can reignite very suddenly, burning off the new material. Material keeps being transferred to the white dwarf, and the process repeats.

39. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of Stars More Massive than the Sun It can be seen from this H–R diagram that stars more massive than the Sun follow very different paths when leaving the main sequence.

40. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of Stars More Massive than the Sun High-mass stars, like all stars, leave the main sequence when there is no more hydrogen fuel in their cores. The first few events are similar to those in lower-mass stars – first a hydrogen shell, then a core burning helium to carbon, surrounded by helium- and hydrogen-burning shells.

41. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of Stars More Massive than the Sun Stars with masses more than 2.5 solar masses do not experience a helium flash – helium burning starts gradually. A 4-solar-mass star makes no sharp moves on the H–R diagram – it moves smoothly back and forth.

42. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of Stars More Massive than the Sun The sequence below, of actual Hubble images, shows first a very massive star, then a very unstable red giant star as it emits a burst of light, illuminating the dust around it. Eta Carinae ~ 100 solar masses

43. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of Stars More Massive than the Sun A star of more than 8 solar masses can fuse elements far beyond carbon in its core, leading to a very different fate. Its path across the H–R diagram is essentially a straight line – it stays at just about the same luminosity as it cools off. Eventually the star dies in a violent explosion called a supernova.

44. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of Stars More Massive than the Sun

45. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Supernova Explosions A supernova is incredibly luminous, as can be seen from these curves – more than a million times as bright as a nova.

46. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Supernova Explosions A supernova is a one-time event – once it happens, there is little or nothing left of the progenitor star. There are two different types of supernovae, both equally common: Type I, which is a carbon-detonation supernova; Type II, which is the death of a high-mass star.

47. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Supernova Explosions Carbon-detonation supernova: White dwarf that has accumulated too much mass from binary companion If the white dwarf’s mass exceeds 1.4 solar masses, electron degeneracy can no longer keep the core from collapsing. Carbon fusion begins throughout the star almost simultaneously, resulting in a carbon explosion.

48. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Supernova Explosions This graphic illustrates the two different types of supernovae. supernovae

49. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Question 8 A Type II supernova occurs when a) hydrogen fusion shuts off. b) uranium decays into lead. c) iron in the core starts to fuse. d) helium is exhausted in the outer layers. e) a white dwarf gains mass.

50. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) hydrogen fusion shuts off. b) uranium decays into lead. c) iron in the core starts to fuse. d) helium is exhausted in the outer layers. e) a white dwarf gains mass. Question 8 A Type II supernova occurs when Fusion of iron does not produce energy or provide pressure; the star’s core collapses immediately, triggering a supernova explosion.

51. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Supernova Explosions Supernovae leave remnants – the expanding clouds of material from the explosion.remnants The Crab Nebula is a remnant from a supernova explosion that occurred in the year 1054.

52. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Which is the Supernova? A or B

53. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) the number of main sequence stars. b) the ratio of giants to supergiants. c) the luminosity of stars at the turnoff point. d) the number of white dwarfs. e) supernova explosions. Question 9 Astronomers determine the age of star clusters by observing

54. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) the number of main sequence stars. b) the ratio of giants to supergiants. c) the luminosity of stars at the turnoff point. d) the number of white dwarfs. e) supernova explosions. Question 9 Astronomers determine the age of star clusters by observing The H–R diagram of a cluster can indicate its approximate age. Turnoff point from the main sequence

55. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Observing Stellar Evolution in Star Clusters The following series of H–R diagrams shows how stars of the same age, but different masses, appear as the cluster as a whole ages. After 10 million years, the most massive stars have already left the main sequence, whereas many of the least massive have not even reached it yet.

56. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Observing Stellar Evolution in Star Clusters After 100 million years, a distinct main- sequence turnoff begins to develop. This shows the highest- mass stars that are still on the main sequence. After 1 billion years, the main-sequence turnoff is much clearer.

57. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) ending their main-sequence stage. b) also evolving into red giants. c) forming planetary nebulae. d) barely starting to fuse hydrogen. e) starting the nova stage. Question 10 In a young star cluster, when more massive stars are evolving into red giants, the least massive stars are

58. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) ending their main-sequence stage. b) also evolving into red giants. c) forming planetary nebulae. d) barely starting to fuse hydrogen. e) starting the nova stage. Question 10 In a young star cluster, when more massive stars are evolving into red giants, the least massive stars are More massive stars form much faster, and have much shorter main-sequence lifetimes. Low-mass stars form more slowly.

59. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Observing Stellar Evolution in Star Clusters After 10 billion years, a number of features are evident: The red giant, subgiant, asymptotic giant, and horizontal branches are all clearly populated. White dwarfs, indicating that solar-mass stars are in their last phases, also appear.

60. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Observing Stellar Evolution in Star Clusters This double cluster, h and  Persei, must be quite young – its H-R diagram is that of a newborn cluster. Its age cannot be more than about 10 million years.

61. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Observing Stellar Evolution in Star Clusters The Hyades cluster, shown here, is also rather young; its main-sequence turnoff indicates an age of about 600 million years.

62. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Observing Stellar Evolution in Star Clusters This globular cluster, M80, is about 10-12 billion years old, much older than the previous examples.

63. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Cycle of Stellar Evolution Star formation is cyclical: stars form, evolve, and die. In dying, they send heavy elements into the interstellar medium. These elements then become parts of new stars. And so it goes.

64. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) as a protostar. b) as a red giant. c) as a main-sequence star. d) as a white dwarf. e) evolving from type O to type M. Question 11 A star will spend most of its “shining” lifetime

65. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) as a protostar. b) as a red giant. c) as a main-sequence star. d) as a white dwarf. e) evolving from type O to type M. Question 11 A star will spend most of its “shining” lifetime In the main-sequence stage, hydrogen fuses to helium. Pressure from light and heat pushing out balances gravitational pressure pushing inward.

66. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) they gradually become cooler and dimmer (spectral type O to type M). b) they gradually become hotter and brighter (spectral type M to type O). c) they don’t change their spectral type. Question 12 As stars evolve during their main- sequence lifetime

67. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. a) they gradually become cooler and dimmer (spectral type O to type M). b) they gradually become hotter and brighter (spectral type M to type O). c) they don’t change their spectral type. Question 12 As stars evolve during their main- sequence lifetime A star’s main-sequence characteristics of surface temperature and brightness are based on its mass. Stars of different initial mass become different spectral types on the main sequence.

68. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Summary of Chapter 12 Once hydrogen is gone in the core, a star burns hydrogen in the surrounding shell. The core contracts and heats; the outer atmosphere expands and cools. Helium begins to fuse in the core, as a helium flash. The star expands into a red giant as the core continues to collapse. The envelope blows off, leaving a white dwarf to gradually cool. Nova results from material accreting onto a white dwarf from a companion star.

69. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Summary of Chapter 12, cont. Massive stars become hot enough to fuse carbon, then heavier elements, all the way to iron. At the end, the core collapses and rebounds as a Type II supernova. Type I supernova is a carbon explosion, occurring when too much mass falls onto a white dwarf. All heavy elements are formed in stellar cores or in supernovae. Stellar evolution can be understood by observing star clusters.