1. The Flower, Pollination, the Seed, and Photoperiodism

2. Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms Gametes are delicate single cells. For two plants to cross fertilize, there must be a mechanism for the two gametes to reach each other safely. There must also be a mechanism to disperse their offspring far enough away from the parent so that they do not have to compete with the parent for light, water, and soil minerals. The functions of the flower solve both of these problems.

3. Flower Power!

4. Life of the Flower

5. Pollination The act of pollen (male gamete) being transferred from anther to stigma Usually accomplished by wind or animals

7. The Flower The flower consists of 4 concentric whorls of tissue 1. a whorl of sepals (collectively called the calyx) 2. a whorl of petals (collectively called the corolla) 3. stamens in which the microsporangia (sperm) form 4. carpels in which the megasporangia (eggs) form.

8. Anatomy of the Flower Non-reproductive Structures Sepals: protection Petals: attracts pollinators Pedicel: connects flower to stem

9. Anatomy of the Flower Male structures Anther: produces pollen Filament: supports and lifts anther Stamen = anther + filament Female structures (collectively known as carpels) Stigma: attachment site for pollen Style: connects stigma to ovaries; has pollen tube Ovary: location of ovules

10. SEM of various pollen grains

11. Sperm vs. Egg Male gamete Haploid Produced in anthers Called microsporangium or pollen Each pollen grain has two cells Germ cell Tube cell Female gamete Haploid Produced in ovary Called megasporangium or ovule Each ovule consists of 8 nuclei

12. Fertilization:The fusion of a male gamete (pollen) with female gamete (ovule) to produce a zygote

13. Life Cycle of Angiosperms

14. Dicot Seed Anatomy 5-15% water Can remain dormant and viable up to 300 yrs (species dependent) Seed Coat: testa Embryonic Leaf: plumule Embryonic Root: radicle

16. Conditions of Germination For successful germination seeds require a combination of … oxygen for aerobic respiration water to metabolically activate the cells temperature for optimal function of enzymes Each seed has its own particular combination of the above three factors.

17. In addition particular species need other more specialized conditions such as: fire freezing passing through digestive system of a seed dispersing animal washing to remove inhibitors (beans) erosion of the seed coat (Poppy ) The particular conditions required by a seed allows it to match germination to favourable conditions

19. Seed Germination 1. Rehydration of cells stimulates metabolism (enzymatic pathways startup) 2. Gibberellin (hormone) produced in cotyledon 3. Gibberellin stimulates amylase production 4. Starch is digested in maltose 5. Maltose is transported to radicle and plumule 6. Maltose converted to glucose, used for cellular respiration or cellulose production

20. Photoperiodism Many plants have the ability to measure the length of the sun cycle. This allows them to schedule their flowering period for a specific time of year Experiments have proven that plants measure night length, not day

21. Photoperiodism Long Day Plants (LDP) Plants will only flower after a minimum amount of daylight is achieved. Typical of plants living in higher altitudes Usually during spring or summer Short Day Plants (SDP) Plants that only flower when the day is shorter than a maximum time period Usually during fall or winter

22. Photoperiodism also explains why some plant species can be grown only in a certain latitude. Spinach, a long-day plant, cannot flower in the tropics because the days never get long enough (14 hours) Ragweed, a short-day plant, fails to thrive in northern Maine because by the time the days become short enough to initiate flowering, a killing frost in apt to occur before reproduction and the formation of seeds is completed.

23. Phytochrome System: The receptor of photoperiod is located within the leaf. The cellular location of the receptor is unclear. The chemical nature of the receptor is a the molecule phytochrome. Phytochrome can be converted from one form to another by different types of light.

24. Flowering in SDP Short day plants flower when the night period is long. In day light or red light, Phytochrome Red (Pr) is converted to Phytochrome Far Red (Pfr). The conversion actually only requires a brief exposure to white or red light. In the dark, Pfr is slowly converted back to Pr. A long night means that there is a long time for the conversion. Under short day conditions (long night) at the end of the night period the concentration of Pfr is low. In SDP, low Pfr concentration is the trigger for flowering.

25. Flowering in LDP: Long day plants flower when the night period is short. In day light (white or red) the Pr is converted to Pfr. During periods when the day light period is long but critically the dark period is short, Pfr does not have long to breakdown in the dark. Consequently there remains a higher concentration of Pfr. In LDP, high Pfr concentration is the trigger to flowering.